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European Journal of Applied Physiology Mar 2023Research should equitably reflect responses in men and women. Including women in research, however, necessitates an understanding of the ovarian hormones and menstrual... (Review)
Review
Research should equitably reflect responses in men and women. Including women in research, however, necessitates an understanding of the ovarian hormones and menstrual phase variations in both cellular and systems physiology. This review outlines recent advances in the multiplicity of ovarian hormone molecular signaling that elucidates the mechanisms for menstrual phase variability in exercise metabolism. The prominent endogenous estrogen, 17-β-estradiol (E2), molecular structure is bioactive in stabilizing plasma membranes and quenching free radicals and both E2 and progesterone (P4) promote the expression of antioxidant enzymes attenuating exercise-induced muscle damage in the late follicular (LF) and mid-luteal (ML) phases. E2 and P4 bind nuclear hormone receptors and membrane-bound receptors to regulate gene expression directly or indirectly, which importantly includes cross-regulated expression of their own receptors. Activation of membrane-bound receptors also regulates kinases causing rapid cellular responses. Careful analysis of these signaling pathways explains menstrual phase-specific differences. Namely, E2-promoted plasma glucose uptake during exercise, via GLUT4 expression and kinases, is nullified by E2-dominant suppression of gluconeogenic gene expression in LF and ML phases, ameliorated by carbohydrate ingestion. E2 signaling maximizes fat oxidation capacity in LF and ML phases, pending low-moderate exercise intensities, restricted nutrient availability, and high E2:P4 ratios. P4 increases protein catabolism during the luteal phase by indeterminate mechanisms. Satellite cell function supported by E2-targeted gene expression is countered by P4, explaining greater muscle strengthening from follicular phase-based training. In totality, this integrative review provides causative effects, supported by meta-analyses for quantitative actuality, highlighting research opportunities and evidence-based relevance for female athletes.
Topics: Male; Female; Humans; Menstrual Cycle; Menstruation; Luteal Phase; Follicular Phase; Estradiol
PubMed: 36402915
DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-05090-3 -
International Journal of Environmental... Jan 2021: The increase in exercise levels in the last few years among professional and recreational female athletes has led to an increased scientific interest about sports... (Observational Study)
Observational Study Randomized Controlled Trial
: The increase in exercise levels in the last few years among professional and recreational female athletes has led to an increased scientific interest about sports health and performance in the female athlete population. The purpose of the IronFEMME Study described in this protocol article is to determine the influence of different hormonal profiles on iron metabolism in response to endurance exercise, and the main markers of muscle damage in response to resistance exercise; both in eumenorrheic, oral contraceptive (OC) users and postmenopausal well-trained women. : This project is an observational controlled randomized counterbalanced study. One hundered and four (104) active and healthy women were selected to participate in the IronFEMME Study, 57 of which were eumenorrheic, 31 OC users and 16 postmenopausal. The project consisted of two sections carried out at the same time: iron metabolism (study I) and muscle damage (study II). For the study I, the exercise protocol consisted of an interval running test (eight bouts of 3 min at 85% of the maximal aerobic speed), whereas the study II protocol was an eccentric-based resistance exercise protocol (10 sets of 10 repetitions of plate-loaded barbell parallel back squats at 60% of their one repetition maximum (1RM) with 2 min of recovery between sets). In both studies, eumenorrheic participants were evaluated at three specific moments of the menstrual cycle: early-follicular phase, late-follicular phase and mid-luteal phase; OC users performed the trial at two moments: withdrawal phase and active pill phase. Lastly, postmenopausal women were only tested once, since their hormonal status does not fluctuate. The three-step method was used to verify the menstrual cycle phase: calendar counting, blood test confirmation, and urine-based ovulation kits. Blood samples were obtained to measure sex hormones, iron metabolism parameters, and muscle damage related markers. : IronFEMME Study has been designed to increase the knowledge regarding the influence of sex hormones on some aspects of the exercise-related female physiology. Iron metabolism and exercise-induced muscle damage will be studied considering the different reproductive status present throughout well-trained females' lifespan.
Topics: Adult; Creatine Kinase; Exercise; Female; Follicular Phase; Hepcidins; Humans; Iron; Iron Metabolism Disorders; Luteal Phase; Menstrual Cycle; Metabolism; Middle Aged; Muscle Contraction; Muscle, Skeletal; Resistance Training
PubMed: 33561085
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18020735 -
Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport Dec 2020To systematically review the current body of research that has investigated changes in strength-related variables during different phases of the menstrual cycle in... (Meta-Analysis)
Meta-Analysis
OBJECTIVES
To systematically review the current body of research that has investigated changes in strength-related variables during different phases of the menstrual cycle in eumenorrheic women.
DESIGN
Systematic review and meta-analysis.
METHODS
A literature search was conducted in Pubmed, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science using search terms related to the menstrual cycle and strength-related measures. Two reviewers reached consensus that 21 studies met the criteria for inclusion. Methodological rigour was assessed using the Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies. Random effects meta-analyses were used to compare the early-follicular, ovulatory and mid-luteal phases for maximal voluntary contraction, isokinetic peak torque, and explosive strength.
RESULTS
The assessment of study quality showed that a high level of bias exists in specific areas of study design. Non-significant and small or trivial effect sizes (p≥0.26, Hedges g≤0.35) were identified for all strength-related variables in each comparison between phases. 95% confidence intervals for each comparison suggested the uncertainty associated with each estimate extends to a small effect on strength performance with unclear direction (-0.42≤g≤0.48). The heterogeneity for each comparison was also small (p≥0.83, I=0%).
CONCLUSIONS
Strength-related measures appear to be minimally altered (g≤0.35) by the fluctuations in ovarian sex hormones that occur during the menstrual cycle. This finding should be interpreted with caution due to the methodological shortcomings identified by the quality assessment.
Topics: Athletic Performance; Estrogens; Female; Humans; Menstrual Cycle; Muscle Strength; Progesterone; Research Design
PubMed: 32456980
DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2020.04.022 -
Journal of Women's Health (2002) Aug 2022The menstrual cycle may influence vulvodynia through hormonal pathways or vulvar irritation due to menstruation or menstrual hygiene. We assessed menstrual cycle...
The menstrual cycle may influence vulvodynia through hormonal pathways or vulvar irritation due to menstruation or menstrual hygiene. We assessed menstrual cycle characteristics in those with and without clinically confirmed vulvodynia. Participants were recruited from the administrative database of a health care network serving ∼27% of Minneapolis-Saint Paul residents. For 220 clinically confirmed cases and 224 controls, menstrual cycle characteristics were retrospectively assessed at three time points: before age 18, the year before onset of vulvar pain, and 3 months before study participation. Logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the associations between menstrual characteristics at all three time points and vulvodynia. Models adjusted for prespecified confounders were evaluated against crude effect estimates. Women with heavier menstrual flows had higher odds of vulvodynia compared with women with lighter menstrual flows during their adolescent years (OR 1.62, 95% CI 0.91-2.86), the year before onset of vulvar pain (OR = 2.11, 95% CI 1.10-4.02), and during the 3 months before study participation (OR = 1.67, 95% CI 0.91-3.06). Women with more severe cramps also had higher odds of vulvodynia compared with women with no or mild cramps during their adolescent years (OR = 2.45, 95% CI 1.45-4.15), the year before onset of vulvar pain (OR = 3.30, 95% CI 1.67-6.51), and during the 3 months before study participation (OR = 4.96, 95% CI 1.99-12.36). Women with specific premenstrual symptoms also reported higher odds of vulvodynia. Among those with vulvodynia, half reported a change in vulvar pain across the menstrual cycle, with 60% of these reporting greater pain just before and during menstruation. Furthermore, we observe a trend of decreased tampon use and increased use of sanitary pads as women with vulvodynia moved closer to their date of diagnosis. Menstrual cycle characteristics were associated with vulvodynia, and associations were consistent across different phases of the reproductive life cycle.
Topics: Adolescent; Female; Humans; Hygiene; Menstrual Cycle; Menstruation; Muscle Cramp; Pain; Retrospective Studies; Vulvodynia
PubMed: 35041490
DOI: 10.1089/jwh.2020.9011 -
Clinical and Experimental Dermatology Mar 2015Perimenstrual exacerbations of dermatoses are commonly recognized, yet our knowledge of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms remains imperfect. Research into the... (Review)
Review
Perimenstrual exacerbations of dermatoses are commonly recognized, yet our knowledge of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms remains imperfect. Research into the effects of oestrogen on the skin has provided evidence to suggest that oestrogen is associated with increases in skin thickness and dermal water content, improved barrier function, and enhanced wound healing. Research into the effects of progesterone suggests that the presence of various dermatoses correlates with peak levels of progesterone. Dermatoses that are exacerbated perimenstrually include acne, psoriasis, atopic eczema and irritant dermatitis, and possibly also erythema multiforme. Exacerbations occur at the peak levels of progesterone in the menstrual cycle. Underlying mechanisms include reduced immune and barrier functions as a result of cyclical fluctuations in oestrogen and/or progesterone. Autoimmune progesterone and oestrogen dermatitis are the best-characterized examples of perimenstrual cutaneous reactions to hormones produced during the menstrual cycle. In this review, we describe the current understanding of the menstrual cycle, and its effect on the skin and cutaneous disorders.
Topics: Dermatitis; Estrogens; Female; Humans; Menstrual Cycle; Progesterone
PubMed: 25683236
DOI: 10.1111/ced.12588 -
International Review of Cell and... 2022Macrophages are present in the endometrium throughout the menstrual cycle and are most abundant during menstruation. Endometrial macrophages contribute to tissue... (Review)
Review
Macrophages are present in the endometrium throughout the menstrual cycle and are most abundant during menstruation. Endometrial macrophages contribute to tissue remodeling during establishment of pregnancy and are thought to play key roles in mediating tissue breakdown and repair during menstruation. Despite these important roles, the phenotype and function of endometrial macrophages remains poorly understood. In this review, we summarize approaches used to characterize endometrial macrophage phenotype, current understanding of the functional role of macrophages in normal endometrial physiology as well as the putative contribution of macrophage dysfunction to women's reproductive health disorders.
Topics: Endometrium; Female; Humans; Macrophages; Menstrual Cycle; Menstruation; Pregnancy
PubMed: 35461658
DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2022.03.011 -
Current Opinion in Endocrinology,... Dec 2020This review seeks to evaluate the impact of environmental exposures on the menstrual cycle length detailing timing of exposure on pathophysiology. (Review)
Review
PURPOSE OF REVIEW
This review seeks to evaluate the impact of environmental exposures on the menstrual cycle length detailing timing of exposure on pathophysiology.
RECENT FINDINGS
Recent literature has examined the relationship between menstrual cycle length and environmental exposures including air pollutants, parabens, and polybrominated biphenyls.
SUMMARY
Research is limited but suggest importance of further research in evaluating environmental exposures and menstrual cycle length.
Topics: Environmental Exposure; Environmental Pollutants; Female; Humans; Menstrual Cycle; Menstruation Disturbances; Time Factors
PubMed: 33027071
DOI: 10.1097/MED.0000000000000579 -
Nature Communications Oct 2023Natural variability in menstrual cycle length, coupled with rapid changes in endometrial gene expression, makes it difficult to accurately define and compare different...
Natural variability in menstrual cycle length, coupled with rapid changes in endometrial gene expression, makes it difficult to accurately define and compare different stages of the endometrial cycle. Here we develop and validate a method for precisely determining endometrial cycle stage based on global gene expression. Our 'molecular staging model' reveals significant and remarkably synchronised daily changes in expression for over 3400 endometrial genes throughout the cycle, with the most dramatic changes occurring during the secretory phase. Our study significantly extends existing data on the endometrial transcriptome, and for the first time enables identification of differentially expressed endometrial genes with increasing age and different ethnicities. It also allows reinterpretation of all endometrial RNA-seq and array data that has been published to date. Our molecular staging model will significantly advance understanding of endometrial-related disorders that affect nearly all women at some stage of their lives, such as heavy menstrual bleeding, endometriosis, adenomyosis, and recurrent implantation failure.
Topics: Female; Humans; Endometrium; Menstrual Cycle; Uterine Diseases; Transcriptome; Biopsy
PubMed: 37798294
DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41979-z -
BMC Women's Health May 2018Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is a common disorder among women of reproductive age. Nearly 40% of women report problems with their menstrual cycles. Exercise is one of the... (Comparative Study)
Comparative Study Randomized Controlled Trial
BACKGROUND
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is a common disorder among women of reproductive age. Nearly 40% of women report problems with their menstrual cycles. Exercise is one of the recommended treatments to reduce symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS). The present study was conducted to determine the effect of 8 weeks aerobic exercise on severity of physical symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS).
METHODS
This study was a randomized clinical trial (IRCT2015021721116N1) that was performed on 65 students living in student dormitories of Mashhad University of Medical Sciences in 2016, Iran. Samples were randomly assigned to control and intervention groups. The intervention group engaged in 8 weeks of aerobic exercises, three times a week, and 20 min for each session. The tools were research unit selection questionnaire, midwifery and personal particulars, temporary determination of premenstrual syndrome, Beck Depression, recorded daily symptoms of premenstrual syndrome and Borg scale. We analyzed the data using SPSS software and Mann-Whitney U test and Friedman test.
RESULTS
At the beginning of the study, both control and intervention groups were homogeneous. The results of independent t-test showed that among the physical symptoms of the premenstrual syndrome in the intervention group compared to the control group, at the end of the study, headache (p = 0.001), nausea, constipation diarrhea (p = 0.01), swollen (p = 0/001) had a significant reduction. Also, the comparison of the difference between the mean of the signs at the beginning and the end of the study, bloating (p = 0.01), Vomiting (p = 0.002), hot flashes (p = 0.04), increase in appetite (p = 0.008) were significantly decreased.
CONCLUSION
Aerobic exercise as one of the ways to treat premenstrual syndrome can reduce the physical symptoms of the syndrome.
TRIAL REGISTRATION
Name of registry: Zahra Mohebbi Dehnavi. IRCT registration number: IRCT 2015021721116 N1. Registration date: 2015 - 08-28. Registration timing: retrospective.
Topics: Adult; Exercise; Female; Humans; Iran; Menstrual Cycle; Premenstrual Syndrome; Retrospective Studies; Students; Surveys and Questionnaires; Universities; Young Adult
PubMed: 29855308
DOI: 10.1186/s12905-018-0565-5 -
Reproductive Sciences (Thousand Oaks,... Jun 2023Menstrual cycle is a major determinant in female reproductive health. In a recent report, Mao et al. (2022) associated deficient glycolysis with heavy menstrual...
Menstrual cycle is a major determinant in female reproductive health. In a recent report, Mao et al. (2022) associated deficient glycolysis with heavy menstrual bleeding. This commentary summarizes these recent findings and the importance of glycolysis and decidualization in endometrial function. It will also discuss if in the light of the recent findings menstrual bleeding is better conceived as a primary endometrial disorder inherent to endometrium or as a secondary endometrial disorder caused by other endometrial conditions.
Topics: Female; Humans; Menorrhagia; Endometrium; Menstrual Cycle; Menstruation
PubMed: 36574146
DOI: 10.1007/s43032-022-01150-3