-
Growth Hormone & IGF Research :... Aug 2018Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the most common of all diabetic complications. The number of people with DR in the United States is expected to increase to 16... (Review)
Review
IMPORTANCE
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the most common of all diabetic complications. The number of people with DR in the United States is expected to increase to 16 million by 2050. DR is the leading cause of blindness among working-age adults in many different countries, including the United States. In later DR stages, neovascularization is associated with extensive retinal capillary non-perfusion and vitreo-proliferation leading to retinal detachment. This neovascularization is orchestrated by an imbalance of growth factors in the retina from which somatolactogens (pituitary growth hormone, GH-N; placental growth hormone, GH-V; prolactin, PRL; and placental lactogen, PL, also referred as chorionic somatomammotropin, CSH), may play an important role.
OBSERVATIONS
Somatolactogens are a group of hormones that share many structural and functional features. They are important for physiological changes in pregnancy, for adequate development of the fetus, and in the case of GH-N, for promoting growth after birth. GH-N is synthesized by the anterior pituitary, GH-V and PL are secreted by the placenta, whereas, PRL is synthesized by the anterior pituitary and uterine decidua. However, in recent years the expression of GH-N and PRL and their receptors have been detected in other tissues including the retina, acting as neuroprotective and pro-angiogenic agents. The relationship of GH-N and diabetic retinopathy (DR) was established many years ago when it was observed that its deficiency was related to regression of DR while an increase in serum levels of GH-N, GH-V, and PL promoted DR. While more studies are needed to define the potential implications of GH-V and PL in DR pathogenesis, it has been demonstrated that GH-N and PRL participate in DR by enhancing neovascularization. Some PRL isoforms, however, have shown an anti-angiogenic activity rather than pro-angiogenesis and appears to be PRL's main role in the regulation of retinal vasculature.
CONCLUSIONS
Somatolactogens are a group of hormones with a significant role in neuroprotection and angiogenesis regulation in the eye. Understanding the mechanisms of angiogenesis regulation by somatolactogens will potentially lead to the development of new drugs for DR.
Topics: Animals; Diabetic Retinopathy; Humans; Neovascularization, Pathologic; Placental Lactogen
PubMed: 29452885
DOI: 10.1016/j.ghir.2018.02.002 -
Endocrinology May 2018Growth hormone (GH), an endocrine hormone, primarily secreted from the anterior pituitary, stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration and is a major... (Review)
Review
Growth hormone (GH), an endocrine hormone, primarily secreted from the anterior pituitary, stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration and is a major regulator of postnatal growth. Humans have two GH genes that encode two versions of GH proteins: a pituitary version (GH-N/GH1) and a placental GH-variant (GH-V/GH2), which are expressed in the syncytiotrophoblast and extravillous trophoblast cells of the placenta. During pregnancy, GH-V replaces GH-N in the maternal circulation at mid-late gestation as the major circulating form of GH. This remarkable change in spatial and temporal GH secretion patterns is proposed to play a role in mediating maternal adaptations to pregnancy. GH-V is associated with fetal growth, and its circulating concentrations have been investigated across a range of pregnancy complications. However, progress in this area has been hindered by a lack of readily accessible and reliable assays for measurement of GH-V. This review will discuss the potential roles of GH-V in normal and pathological pregnancies and will touch on the assays used to quantify this hormone.
Topics: Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1; Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2; Diabetes, Gestational; Down Syndrome; Female; Fetal Growth Retardation; Fetal Macrosomia; Gestational Trophoblastic Disease; Growth Hormone; Humans; Placental Hormones; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Complications; Pregnancy in Diabetics; Pregnancy, Ectopic; Protein Isoforms; Trisomy 18 Syndrome
PubMed: 29659791
DOI: 10.1210/en.2018-00037 -
International Journal of Molecular... Jul 2017Breast cancer is well known as a malignancy being strongly influenced by female steroids. Pregnancy is a protective factor against breast cancer. Human chorionic... (Review)
Review
Breast cancer is well known as a malignancy being strongly influenced by female steroids. Pregnancy is a protective factor against breast cancer. Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) is a candidate hormone which could mediate this antitumoral effect of pregnancy. For this review article, all original research articles on the role of HCG in breast cancer were considered, which are listed in PubMed database and were written in English. The role of HCG in breast cancer seems to be a paradox. Placental heterodimeric HCG acts as a protective agent by imprinting a permanent genomic signature of the mammary gland determining a refractory condition to malignant transformation which is characterized by cellular differentiation, apoptosis and growth inhibition. On the other hand, ectopic expression of β-HCG in various cancer entities is associated with poor prognosis due to its tumor-promoting function. Placental HCG and ectopically expressed β-HCG exert opposite effects on breast tumorigenesis. Therefore, mimicking pregnancy by treatment with HCG is suggested as a strategy for breast cancer prevention, whereas targeting β-HCG expressing tumor cells seems to be an option for breast cancer therapy.
Topics: Apoptosis; Breast Neoplasms; Chorionic Gonadotropin; Chorionic Gonadotropin, beta Subunit, Human; Female; Genomic Imprinting; Humans; Placenta; Pregnancy
PubMed: 28754015
DOI: 10.3390/ijms18071587 -
Placenta Apr 2015Hormones have an important role in regulating fetal development. They act as environmental signals and integrate tissue growth and differentiation with relation to... (Review)
Review
Hormones have an important role in regulating fetal development. They act as environmental signals and integrate tissue growth and differentiation with relation to nutrient availability. While hormones control the developmental fate of resources available to the fetus, the actual supply of nutrients and oxygen to the fetus depends on the placenta. However, much less is known about the role of hormones in regulating placental development, even though the placenta has a wide range of hormone receptors and produces hormones itself from early in gestation. The placenta is, therefore, exposed to hormones by autocrine, paracrine and endocrine mechanisms throughout its lifespan. It is known to adapt its phenotype in response to environmental cues and fetal demand signals, particularly when there is a disparity between the fetal genetic drive for growth and the nutrient supply. These adaptive responses help to maintain fetal growth during adverse conditions and are likely to depend, at least in part, on the hormonal milieu. This review examines the endocrine regulation of placental phenotype with particular emphasis on the glucocorticoid hormones. It focuses on the availability of placental hormone receptors and on the effects of hormones on the morphology, transport capacity and endocrine function of the placenta.
Topics: Animals; Female; Fetal Development; Hormones; Humans; Maternal-Fetal Exchange; Phenotype; Placenta; Placental Hormones; Placentation; Pregnancy; Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear
PubMed: 25524059
DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2014.11.018 -
Clinica Chimica Acta; International... Jan 2024Reproductive biomarkers are important regulators in women, especially during pregnancy and childbirth. Because of their essential role in women's health, the discovery... (Review)
Review
Reproductive biomarkers are important regulators in women, especially during pregnancy and childbirth. Because of their essential role in women's health, the discovery and quantification of reproductive biomarkers is of great clinical importance. Nowadays, there are many detection strategies to detect these biomarkers, including VEGF, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), etc. Consider the limitations and problems of conventional diagnostic methods, new methods are being developed, one of the most important being methods based on nanotechnology. This review includes a review of methods for diagnosing reproductive biomarkers, ranging from mainstream to nanotechnology-based methods. The bulk of this article is an in-depth introduction to the latest advances in biosensor and nanosensor research for the detection and quantitative identification of reproductive biomarkers.
Topics: Pregnancy; Humans; Female; Reproduction; Chorionic Gonadotropin; Biomarkers; Parturition
PubMed: 37992849
DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2023.117668 -
Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory... Dec 2020
Topics: Chorionic Gonadotropin; Female; Humans; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Tests
PubMed: 33554533
DOI: 10.1515/cclm-2020-1797 -
Fertility and Sterility Apr 2015A single bolus of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) at midcycle has been the gold standard for triggering final oocyte maturation and ovulation in assisted reproductive... (Review)
Review
A single bolus of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) at midcycle has been the gold standard for triggering final oocyte maturation and ovulation in assisted reproductive technology cycles. More recently, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-agonist (GnRH-a) triggering has been introduced. The GnRH-a trigger may allow a more physiologic surge of both luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone, although whether the combined surge will result in improved oocyte and embryo quality remains to be seen. However, the short duration of the LH surge with the GnRH-a trigger (approximately 34 hours) has been shown to be beneficial for preventing ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome in GnRH antagonist in vitro fertilization (IVF) cycles when compared with the prolonged elevation of hCG (≥6 days) after exposure to an hCG bolus. This review discusses the physiologic basis for the use of a GnRH-a trigger in IVF cycles.
Topics: Chorionic Gonadotropin; Female; Fertility Agents, Female; Fertilization in Vitro; Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone; Humans; Ovarian Hyperstimulation Syndrome; Ovulation Induction; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Rate
PubMed: 25712575
DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2014.12.129 -
Cell Proliferation May 2023The placental barrier plays a key role in protecting the developing fetus from xenobiotics and exchanging substances between the fetus and mother. However, the...
The placental barrier plays a key role in protecting the developing fetus from xenobiotics and exchanging substances between the fetus and mother. However, the trophoblast cell lines and animal models are often inadequate to recapitulate the key architecture and functional characteristics of human placental barrier. Here, we described a biomimetic placental barrier model from human trophoblast stem cells (hTSCs) in a perfused organ chip system. The placental barrier was constructed by co-culture of hTSCs and endothelial cells on the opposite sides of a collagen-coated membrane on chip. hTSCs can differentiate into cytotrophoblasts (CT) and syncytiotrophoblast (ST), which self-assembled into bilayered trophoblastic epithelium with placental microvilli-like structure under dynamic cultures. The formed placental barrier displayed dense microvilli, higher level secretion of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), enhanced glucose transport activity. Moreover, RNA-seq analysis revealed upregulated ST expression and activation of trophoblast differentiation-related signalling pathways. These results indicated the key role of fluid flow in promoting trophoblast syncytialization and placental early development. After exposure to mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate, one of the endocrine disrupting chemicals, the model showed inhibited hCG production and disturbed ST formation in trophoblastic epithelium, suggesting impaired placental structure and function elicited by environmental toxicants. Collectively, the hTSCs-derived placental model can recapitulate placenta physiology and pathological response to external stimuli in a biomimetic manner, which is useful for the study of placental biology and associated diseases.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Pregnancy; Female; Placenta; Trophoblasts; Microphysiological Systems; Endothelial Cells; Chorionic Gonadotropin; Cell Differentiation; Stem Cells
PubMed: 37199016
DOI: 10.1111/cpr.13469 -
Frontiers in Endocrinology 2022Human placenta secretes a variety of hormones, some of them in large amounts. Their effects on maternal physiology, including the immune system, are poorly understood.... (Review)
Review
Human placenta secretes a variety of hormones, some of them in large amounts. Their effects on maternal physiology, including the immune system, are poorly understood. Not one of the protein hormones specific to human placenta occurs outside primates. Instead, laboratory and domesticated species have their own sets of placental hormones. There are nonetheless several examples of convergent evolution. Thus, horse and human have chorionic gonadotrophins with similar functions whilst pregnancy-specific glycoproteins have evolved in primates, rodents, horses, and some bats, perhaps to support invasive placentation. Placental lactogens occur in rodents and ruminants as well as primates though evolved through duplication of different genes and with functions that only partially overlap. There are also placental hormones, such as the pregnancy-associated glycoproteins of ruminants, that have no equivalent in human gestation. This review focusses on the evolution of placental hormones involved in recognition and maintenance of pregnancy, in maternal adaptations to pregnancy and lactation, and in facilitating immune tolerance of the fetal semiallograft. The contention is that knowledge gained from laboratory and domesticated mammals can translate to a better understanding of human placental endocrinology, but only if viewed in an evolutionary context.
Topics: Animals; Female; Glycoproteins; Horses; Humans; Models, Animal; Placenta; Placental Hormones; Placentation; Pregnancy; Rodentia
PubMed: 35692413
DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.891927 -
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology... Feb 2022
Topics: Breast Feeding; Female; Fluorocarbons; Humans; Lactation; Placenta; Placental Hormones; Pregnancy
PubMed: 34562075
DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgab702