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Thyroid : Official Journal of the... Mar 2017Thyroid disease in pregnancy is a common clinical problem. Since the guidelines for the management of these disorders by the American Thyroid Association (ATA) were...
BACKGROUND
Thyroid disease in pregnancy is a common clinical problem. Since the guidelines for the management of these disorders by the American Thyroid Association (ATA) were first published in 2011, significant clinical and scientific advances have occurred in the field. The aim of these guidelines is to inform clinicians, patients, researchers, and health policy makers on published evidence relating to the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease in women during pregnancy, preconception, and the postpartum period.
METHODS
The specific clinical questions addressed in these guidelines were based on prior versions of the guidelines, stakeholder input, and input of task force members. Task force panel members were educated on knowledge synthesis methods, including electronic database searching, review and selection of relevant citations, and critical appraisal of selected studies. Published English language articles were eligible for inclusion. The American College of Physicians Guideline Grading System was used for critical appraisal of evidence and grading strength of recommendations. The guideline task force had complete editorial independence from the ATA. Competing interests of guideline task force members were regularly updated, managed, and communicated to the ATA and task force members.
RESULTS
The revised guidelines for the management of thyroid disease in pregnancy include recommendations regarding the interpretation of thyroid function tests in pregnancy, iodine nutrition, thyroid autoantibodies and pregnancy complications, thyroid considerations in infertile women, hypothyroidism in pregnancy, thyrotoxicosis in pregnancy, thyroid nodules and cancer in pregnant women, fetal and neonatal considerations, thyroid disease and lactation, screening for thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy, and directions for future research.
CONCLUSIONS
We have developed evidence-based recommendations to inform clinical decision-making in the management of thyroid disease in pregnant and postpartum women. While all care must be individualized, such recommendations provide, in our opinion, optimal care paradigms for patients with these disorders.
Topics: Autoantibodies; Breast Feeding; Clinical Decision-Making; Disease Management; Evidence-Based Medicine; Female; Humans; Hypothyroidism; Infertility, Female; Lactation; Postpartum Period; Practice Guidelines as Topic; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Complications; Pregnancy Complications, Neoplastic; Societies, Medical; Thyroid Diseases; Thyroid Function Tests; Thyroid Neoplasms; Thyroid Nodule; Thyrotoxicosis; United States
PubMed: 28056690
DOI: 10.1089/thy.2016.0457 -
Nature Reviews. Endocrinology Mar 2022Thyroid disorders are prevalent in pregnant women. Furthermore, thyroid hormone has a critical role in fetal development and thyroid dysfunction can adversely affect... (Review)
Review
Thyroid disorders are prevalent in pregnant women. Furthermore, thyroid hormone has a critical role in fetal development and thyroid dysfunction can adversely affect obstetric outcomes. Thus, the appropriate management of hyperthyroidism, most commonly caused by Graves disease, and hypothyroidism, which in iodine sufficient regions is most commonly caused by Hashimoto thyroiditis, in pregnancy is important for the health of both pregnant women and their offspring. Gestational transient thyrotoxicosis can also occur during pregnancy and should be differentiated from Graves disease. Effects of thyroid autoimmunity and subclinical hypothyroidism in pregnancy remain controversial. Iodine deficiency is the leading cause of hypothyroidism worldwide. Despite global efforts to eradicate iodine deficiency disorders, pregnant women remain at risk of iodine deficiency due to increased iodine requirements during gestation. The incidence of thyroid cancer is increasing worldwide, including in young adults. As such, the diagnosis of thyroid nodules or thyroid cancer during pregnancy is becoming more frequent. The evaluation and management of thyroid nodules and thyroid cancer in pregnancy pose a particular challenge. Postpartum thyroiditis can occur up to 1 year after delivery and must be differentiated from other forms of thyroid dysfunction, as treatment differs. This Review provides current evidence and recommendations for the evaluation and management of thyroid disorders in pregnancy and in the postpartum period.
Topics: Female; Humans; Hyperthyroidism; Postpartum Period; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Complications; Thyroid Diseases; Thyroid Nodule
PubMed: 34983968
DOI: 10.1038/s41574-021-00604-z -
Lancet (London, England) Aug 2016Hyperthyroidism is characterised by increased thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion from the thyroid gland, whereas thyrotoxicosis refers to the clinical syndrome of... (Review)
Review
Hyperthyroidism is characterised by increased thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion from the thyroid gland, whereas thyrotoxicosis refers to the clinical syndrome of excess circulating thyroid hormones, irrespective of the source. The most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves' disease, followed by toxic nodular goitre. Other important causes of thyrotoxicosis include thyroiditis, iodine-induced and drug-induced thyroid dysfunction, and factitious ingestion of excess thyroid hormones. Treatment options for Graves' disease include antithyroid drugs, radioactive iodine therapy, and surgery, whereas antithyroid drugs are not generally used long term in toxic nodular goitre, because of the high relapse rate of thyrotoxicosis after discontinuation. β blockers are used in symptomatic thyrotoxicosis, and might be the only treatment needed for thyrotoxicosis not caused by excessive production and release of the thyroid hormones. Thyroid storm and hyperthyroidism in pregnancy and during the post-partum period are special circumstances that need careful assessment and treatment.
Topics: Adrenergic beta-Antagonists; Amiodarone; Antithyroid Agents; Diagnosis, Differential; Drug Administration Schedule; Female; Graves Disease; Humans; Hyperthyroidism; Iodine Radioisotopes; Patient Care Team; Practice Guidelines as Topic; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Complications; Risk Factors; Thyroid Crisis; Thyroid Gland; Thyroid Hormones; Thyroidectomy; Thyrotoxicosis
PubMed: 27038492
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00278-6 -
American Family Physician Dec 2021Thyroiditis is a general term for inflammation of the thyroid gland. The most common forms of thyroiditis encountered by family physicians include Hashimoto, postpartum,...
Thyroiditis is a general term for inflammation of the thyroid gland. The most common forms of thyroiditis encountered by family physicians include Hashimoto, postpartum, and subacute. Most forms of thyroiditis result in a triphasic disease pattern of thyroid dysfunction. Patients will have an initial phase of hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis) attributed to the release of preformed thyroid hormone from damaged thyroid cells. This is followed by hypothyroidism, when the thyroid stores are depleted, and then eventual restoration of normal thyroid function. Some patients may develop permanent hypothyroidism. Hashimoto thyroiditis is an autoimmune disorder that presents with or without signs or symptoms of hypothyroidism, often with a painless goiter, and is associated with elevated thyroid peroxidase antibodies. Patients with Hashimoto thyroiditis and overt hypothyroidism are generally treated with lifelong thyroid hormone therapy. Postpartum thyroiditis occurs within one year of delivery, miscarriage, or medical abortion. Subacute thyroiditis is a self-limited inflammatory disease characterized by anterior neck pain. Treatment of subacute thyroiditis should focus on symptoms. In the hyperthyroid phase, beta blockers can treat adrenergic symptoms. In the hypothyroid phase, treatment is generally not necessary but may be used in patients with signs and symptoms of hypothyroidism or permanent hypothyroidism. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and corticosteroids are indicated for the treatment of thyroid pain. Certain drugs may induce thyroiditis, such as amiodarone, immune checkpoint inhibitors, interleukin-2, interferon-alfa, lithium, and tyrosine kinase inhibitors. In all cases of thyroiditis, surveillance and clinical follow-up are recommended to monitor for changes in thyroid function.
Topics: Hashimoto Disease; Humans; Thyroiditis
PubMed: 34913664
DOI: No ID Found -
Biology of Reproduction Nov 2018Thyroid hormones are vital for the proper functioning of the female reproductive system, since they modulate the metabolism and development of ovarian, uterine, and... (Review)
Review
Thyroid hormones are vital for the proper functioning of the female reproductive system, since they modulate the metabolism and development of ovarian, uterine, and placental tissues. Therefore, hypo- and hyperthyroidism may result in subfertility or infertility in both women and animals. Other well-documented sequelae of maternal thyroid dysfunctions include menstrual/estral irregularity, anovulation, abortion, preterm delivery, preeclampsia, intrauterine growth restriction, postpartum thyroiditis, and mental retardation in children. Several studies have been carried out involving prospective and retrospective studies of women with thyroid dysfunction, as well as in vivo and in vitro assays of hypo- and hyperthyroidism using experimental animal models and/or ovarian, uterine, and placental cell culture. These studies have sought to elucidate the mechanisms by which thyroid hormones influence reproduction to better understand the physiology of the reproductive system and to provide better therapeutic tools for reproductive dysfunctions that originate from thyroid dysfunctions. Therefore, this review aims to summarize and update the available information related to the role of thyroid hormones in the morphophysiology of the ovary, uterus, and placenta in women and animals and the effects of hypo- and hyperthyroidism on the female reproductive system.
Topics: Female; Humans; Pregnancy; Reproduction; Reproductive Health; Thyroid Hormones
PubMed: 29767691
DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioy115 -
The American Journal of Psychiatry Dec 2016Psychosis or mania after childbirth is a psychiatric emergency with risk for suicide and infanticide. (Review)
Review
OBJECTIVE
Psychosis or mania after childbirth is a psychiatric emergency with risk for suicide and infanticide.
METHOD
The authors reviewed the epidemiologic and genetic research and physiological postpartum triggers (endocrine, immunological, circadian) of psychosis. They also summarized all systematic reviews and synthesized the sparse clinical studies to provide diagnostic recommendations, treatment options, and strategies for prevention.
RESULTS
The incidence of first-lifetime onset postpartum psychosis/mania from population-based register studies of psychiatric admissions varies from 0.25 to 0.6 per 1,000 births. After an incipient episode, 20%-50% of women have isolated postpartum psychosis. The remaining women have episodes outside the perinatal period, usually within the bipolar spectrum. Presumably, the mechanism of onset is related to physiological changes after birth (e.g., hormonal, immunological, circadian), which precipitate disease in genetically vulnerable women. Some women have treatable causes and comorbidities, such as autoimmune thyroiditis or infections. N-methyl-d-aspartate-encephalitis or inborn errors of metabolism may present after birth with psychosis. Fewer than 30 publications have focused on the treatment of postpartum psychosis. The largest study (N=64) provided evidence that lithium is highly efficacious for both acute and maintenance treatment. Another report (N=34) described successful ECT treatment. Inpatient care is usually required to ensure safety, complete the diagnostic evaluation, and initiate treatment. The relapse risk after a subsequent pregnancy for women with isolated postpartum psychoses is 31% (95% CI=22-42). Strategies for prevention of postpartum psychosis include lithium prophylaxis immediately postpartum and proactive safety monitoring.
CONCLUSIONS
Postpartum psychosis offers an intriguing model to explore etiologic contributions to the neurobiology of affective psychosis.
Topics: Bipolar Disorder; Depression, Postpartum; Electroconvulsive Therapy; Endophenotypes; Female; Humans; Lithium; Postpartum Period; Pregnancy; Psychotic Disorders
PubMed: 27609245
DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16040454 -
The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society Feb 2019Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) and Graves' disease (GD) are examples of autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD), the commonest autoimmune condition. Antibodies to thyroid... (Review)
Review
Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) and Graves' disease (GD) are examples of autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD), the commonest autoimmune condition. Antibodies to thyroid peroxidase (TPO), the enzyme that catalyses thyroid-hormone production and antibodies to the receptor for the thyroid-stimulating hormone, are characteristic of HT and GD, respectively. It is presently accepted that genetic susceptibility, environmental factors, including nutritional factors and immune disorders contribute to the development of AITD. Aiming to investigate the effect of iodine, iron and selenium in the risk, pathogenesis and treatment of thyroid disease, PubMed and the Cochrane Library were searched for relevant publications to provide a narrative review. Iodine: chronic exposure to excess iodine intake induces autoimmune thyroiditis, partly because highly-iodinated thyroglobulin (Tg) is more immunogenic. The recent introduction of universal salt iodisation can have a similar, although transient, effect. Iron: iron deficiency impairs thyroid metabolism. TPO is a haem enzyme that becomes active only after binding haem. AITD patients are frequently iron-deficient since autoimmune gastritis, which reduces iron absorption and coeliac disease which causes iron loss, are frequent co-morbidities. In two-thirds of women with persistent symptoms of hypothyroidism despite appropriate levothyroxine therapy, restoration of serum ferritin above 100 µg/l ameliorated symptoms. Selenium: selenoproteins are essential to thyroid action. In particular, the glutathione peroxidases remove excessive hydrogen peroxide produced there for the iodination of Tg to form thyroid hormones. There is evidence from observational studies and randomised controlled trials that selenium, probably as selenoproteins, can reduce TPO-antibody concentration, hypothyroidism and postpartum thyroiditis. Appropriate status of iodine, iron and selenium is crucial to thyroid health.
Topics: Autoantigens; Graves Disease; Hashimoto Disease; Humans; Hypothyroidism; Immunoglobulins, Thyroid-Stimulating; Iodide Peroxidase; Iodine; Iron; Iron-Binding Proteins; Nutritional Status; Risk Factors; Selenium; Sodium Chloride, Dietary; Thyroiditis, Autoimmune
PubMed: 30208979
DOI: 10.1017/S0029665118001192 -
Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease 2022COVID-19 is a severe acute respiratory syndrome. Recent reports showed that autoimmune thyroiditis might occur following COVID-19 infection. We aimed to review the... (Review)
Review
COVID-19 is a severe acute respiratory syndrome. Recent reports showed that autoimmune thyroiditis might occur following COVID-19 infection. We aimed to review the literature to assess the prevalence, clinical features and outcome of autoimmune thyroid disorders triggered by COVID-19. We reviewed case reports, case series, and observational studies of autoimmune thyroiditis including Graves' disease, Hashimoto thyroiditis, and silent thyroiditis developed in COVID-19 patients by searching PubMed, SCOPUS and Web of Science and included in the systematic review. Our search yielded no prevalence study. We noted 20 reported cases: Fourteen cases of Graves' disease, 5 cases of hypothyroidism due to Hashimoto's thyroiditis and one case of postpartum thyroiditis. The majority (16/20, 80%) were middle-aged (mean age: 40 years) female patients. Autoimmune thyroiditis was diagnosed either concomitantly or 7-90 days after the COVID-19 infection. Eight out of 14 cases with Graves' disease had a known thyroid disorder and they were stable in remission. One out of 5 cases with Hashimoto's thyroiditis had known prior hypothyroidism. The majority of the patients achieved remission within 3 months. One patient with thyroid storm due to Graves' disease and one patient with myxedema coma have died. Current data suggest that COVID-19 may cause autoimmune thyroid disease or exacerbate the underlying thyroid disease in remission. It is reasonable to routinely assess the thyroid functions both in the acute phase and during the convalescence so as not to overlook a thyroid disorder and not to delay treatment especially in patients with preexisting autoimmune thyroid diseases.
Topics: Adult; COVID-19; Female; Graves Disease; Hashimoto Disease; Humans; Hypothyroidism; Middle Aged; Thyroiditis; Thyroiditis, Autoimmune
PubMed: 35307540
DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2022.102314 -
American Family Physician Sep 2014Thyroiditis is a general term that encompasses several clinical disorders characterized by inflammation of the thyroid gland. The most common is Hashimoto thyroiditis;...
Thyroiditis is a general term that encompasses several clinical disorders characterized by inflammation of the thyroid gland. The most common is Hashimoto thyroiditis; patients typically present with a nontender goiter, hypothyroidism, and an elevated thyroid peroxidase antibody level. Treatment with levothyroxine ameliorates the hypothyroidism and may reduce goiter size. Postpartum thyroiditis is transient or persistent thyroid dysfunction that occurs within one year of childbirth, miscarriage, or medical abortion. Release of preformed thyroid hormone into the bloodstream may result in hyperthyroidism. This may be followed by transient or permanent hypothyroidism as a result of depletion of thyroid hormone stores and destruction of thyroid hormone-producing cells. Patients should be monitored for changes in thyroid function. Beta blockers can treat symptoms in the initial hyperthyroid phase; in the subsequent hypothyroid phase, levothyroxine should be considered in women with a serum thyroid-stimulating hormone level greater than 10 mIU per L, or in women with a thyroid-stimulating hormone level of 4 to 10 mIU per L who are symptomatic or desire fertility. Subacute thyroiditis is a transient thyrotoxic state characterized by anterior neck pain, suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone, and low radioactive iodine uptake on thyroid scanning. Many cases of subacute thyroiditis follow an upper respiratory viral illness, which is thought to trigger an inflammatory destruction of thyroid follicles. In most cases, the thyroid gland spontaneously resumes normal thyroid hormone production after several months. Treatment with high-dose acetylsalicylic acid or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is directed toward relief of thyroid pain.
Topics: Adrenergic beta-Antagonists; Female; Hormone Replacement Therapy; Humans; Hypothyroidism; Male; Monitoring, Physiologic; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Complications; Prognosis; Thyroid Gland; Thyroiditis; Thyrotropin; Thyroxine; Treatment Outcome; Ultrasonography
PubMed: 25251231
DOI: No ID Found -
Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology Jun 2019Postpartum thyroiditis (PPT) is an autoimmune-mediated destructive thyroiditis that occurs in the first year postpartum with a prevalence of 5%. In order to... (Review)
Review
Postpartum thyroiditis (PPT) is an autoimmune-mediated destructive thyroiditis that occurs in the first year postpartum with a prevalence of 5%. In order to appropriately counsel and treat the patient, physicians need to recognize the signs and symptoms of PPT and distinguish PPT from Graves hyperthyroidism. This review of PPT will discuss the etiology, clinical course, risk factors, prognosis, and treatment of PPT. Understanding PPT is important for all physicians taking care of women in the peripartum period as women who have had PPT are at an increased risk of subsequent episodes of PP and at risk of permanent hypothyroidism.
Topics: Adrenergic beta-Antagonists; Autoantibodies; Diagnosis, Differential; Female; Hormone Replacement Therapy; Humans; Hypothyroidism; Iodide Peroxidase; Postpartum Thyroiditis; Puerperal Disorders; Remission, Spontaneous; Risk Factors; Thyroxine
PubMed: 30844908
DOI: 10.1097/GRF.0000000000000430