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Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical... 2022The World Health Organization, has declared the recent multiregional outbreak of monkeypox, a global public health emergency. Monkeypox is a zoonotic viral infection... (Review)
Review
The World Health Organization, has declared the recent multiregional outbreak of monkeypox, a global public health emergency. Monkeypox is a zoonotic viral infection endemic to the west and central Africa. It belongs to the Poxviridae family, the Chordopoxvirinae subfamily, and the Orthopoxvirus genus. The Poxviridae family generally consists of complex, large, enveloped, and linear double-stranded DNA viruses. The initial clinical symptoms of monkeypox are often fever, severe headache, lymphadenopathy, myalgia, and fatigue. The skin lesions typically erupt within 1-3 days of the onset of fever. The rash tends to be more localized on the face and extremities than on the trunk. Monkeypox is often a self-limiting infection, and symptoms last from 2 to 4 weeks. It is isolated from various species, but the exact natural host is uncertain. Monkeypox is transmitted by close contact with infected humans or animals. Currently, no specific medication is available for monkeypox, and the existing therapeutics are the anti-viral agents approved for smallpox infection, including tecovirimat, cidofovir, and brincidofovir. Additionally, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved Vaccinia Immune Globulin Intravenous for treating vaccination complications. It is diagnosed by PCR. There are currently two vaccines licensed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. According to the WHO guidance, the first-generation smallpox vaccines held in national reserves of some countries are not recommended as they do not meet the current safety and manufacturing standards. The interim guidance indicates that new and safer (second- and third generation) vaccines for smallpox, may be beneficial for monkeypox prevention, including JYNNEOS, which has been approved for the prevention of monkeypox. Human monkeypox was first reported in 1970. Since then, it has caused several outbreaks, mainly in central and west Africa. The first monkeypox outbreak outside of Africa occurred in the United States in 2003, linked to contact with infected pet prairie dogs. More recently (2018-2021), monkeypox cases have been reported in travelers from Nigeria to the United Kingdom, Israel, Singapore, and the US. Since May 2022, multiple monkeypox cases have been confirmed in several non-endemic countries, raising the concern of an emerging global pandemic. This review is an updated overview of our current state of knowledge regarding monkeypox virology, pathophysiology, clinical characteristics, epidemiology, vaccines, diagnosis, and treatment options.
Topics: Animals; Cidofovir; DNA; Humans; Mpox (monkeypox); Smallpox; United States; Vaccines
PubMed: 36130588
DOI: 10.18433/jpps33138 -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024The family Poxviridae is a large family of viruses with a ubiquitous distribution, subdivided into two subfamilies: Chordopoxvirinae (poxviruses of vertebrates) and... (Review)
Review
The family Poxviridae is a large family of viruses with a ubiquitous distribution, subdivided into two subfamilies: Chordopoxvirinae (poxviruses of vertebrates) and Entomopoxvirinae (poxviruses of insects). Only three species from the first subfamily, Orthopoxvirus (OPV), Molluscipoxvirus and Parapoxvirus, can infect the human being. In the paediatric population, viruses belonging to the first two subfamilies have the greatest importance. Following the eradication of smallpox in 1980, vaccination of the general population was discontinued after careful consideration of the risks and benefits. However, nearly all children and most of the world's population had little to no protection against OPV. The aim of this chapter is to review the current evidence on the aetiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and management of Poxviridae infections in children.
Topics: Humans; Child; Poxviridae Infections; Poxviridae; Child, Preschool; Infant; Animals
PubMed: 38801580
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_13 -
Cell Oct 2016Monkeypox (MPXV) and cowpox (CPXV) are emerging agents that cause severe human infections on an intermittent basis, and variola virus (VARV) has potential for use as an...
Monkeypox (MPXV) and cowpox (CPXV) are emerging agents that cause severe human infections on an intermittent basis, and variola virus (VARV) has potential for use as an agent of bioterror. Vaccinia immune globulin (VIG) has been used therapeutically to treat severe orthopoxvirus infections but is in short supply. We generated a large panel of orthopoxvirus-specific human monoclonal antibodies (Abs) from immune subjects to investigate the molecular basis of broadly neutralizing antibody responses for diverse orthopoxviruses. Detailed analysis revealed the principal neutralizing antibody specificities that are cross-reactive for VACV, CPXV, MPXV, and VARV and that are determinants of protection in murine challenge models. Optimal protection following respiratory or systemic infection required a mixture of Abs that targeted several membrane proteins, including proteins on enveloped and mature virion forms of virus. This work reveals orthopoxvirus targets for human Abs that mediate cross-protective immunity and identifies new candidate Ab therapeutic mixtures to replace VIG.
Topics: Antibodies, Monoclonal; Antibodies, Neutralizing; Antibodies, Viral; Antibody Specificity; Cowpox; Cowpox virus; Cross Reactions; Humans; Leukocytes, Mononuclear; Mpox (monkeypox); Monkeypox virus; Poxviridae Infections; Smallpox; Vaccinia; Vaccinia virus; Variola virus
PubMed: 27768891
DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2016.09.049 -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024Poxviridae family includes several viruses that infecting humans usually causes skin lesions only, but in some cases their clinical course is complicated by viral... (Review)
Review
Poxviridae family includes several viruses that infecting humans usually causes skin lesions only, but in some cases their clinical course is complicated by viral pneumonia (with or without bacterial superinfections). Historically variola virus has been the poxviridae most frequently associated with the development of pneumonia with many large outbreaks worldwide before its eradication in 1980. It is still considered a biological threat for its potential in biological warfare and bioterrorism. Smallpox pneumonia can be severe with the onset of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and death. Vaccinia virus, used for vaccination against smallpox exceptionally, in immunocompromised patients, can induce generalized (with also lung involvement) severe disease after vaccination. MPXV virus occasionally can cause pneumonia particularly in immunocompromised patients. The pathophysiology of poxviridae pneumonia is still an area of active research; however, in animal models these viruses can cause both direct damage to the lower airways epithelium and a hyperinflammatory syndrome, like a cytokine storm. Multiple mechanisms of immune evasion have also been described. The treatment of poxviridae pneumonia is mainly based on careful supportive care. Despite the absence of randomized clinical trials in patients with poxviridae pneumonia there are antiviral drugs, such as tecovirimat, cidofovir and brincidofovir, FDA-approved for use in smallpox and also available under an expanded access protocol for treatment of MPXV. There are 2 (replication-deficient modified vaccinia Ankara and replication-competent vaccinia virus) smallpox vaccines FDA-approved with the first one also approved for prevention of MPXV in adults that are at high risk of infection.
Topics: Humans; Animals; Poxviridae Infections; Antiviral Agents; Pneumonia, Viral; Poxviridae; Vaccinia virus; Smallpox; Variola virus
PubMed: 38801579
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_12 -
Current Opinion in Virology Oct 2022Poxviruses are large double-stranded DNA viruses that encode their own DNA replication, transcription, and mRNA biogenesis machinery, which underlies their ability to... (Review)
Review
Poxviruses are large double-stranded DNA viruses that encode their own DNA replication, transcription, and mRNA biogenesis machinery, which underlies their ability to replicate entirely in the cytoplasm. However, like all other viruses, poxviruses remain dependent on host ribosomes to translate their mRNAs into the viral proteins needed to complete their replication cycle. While earlier studies established a fundamental understanding of how poxviruses wrestle with their hosts for control of translation initiation and elongation factors that guide ribosome recruitment and mRNA decoding, recent work has begun to reveal the extent to which poxviruses directly target the ribosome itself. This review summarizes our current understanding of the regulation of ribosomes and translation in poxvirus infection.
Topics: Humans; Vaccinia virus; Ribosomes; Poxviridae; Poxviridae Infections; RNA, Messenger; Virus Replication
PubMed: 36270183
DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2022.101256 -
Revue Scientifique Et Technique... Aug 2015Myxomatosis, a major disease of European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), is enzootic on several continents. The disease is infectious, virulent and contagious. The... (Review)
Review
Myxomatosis, a major disease of European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), is enzootic on several continents. The disease is infectious, virulent and contagious. The pathogen is a virus of the family Poxviridae, genus Leporipoxvirus. In its classic form the disease is often fatal, characterised by severe immunosuppression and the appearance of skin pseudotumours (myxomas); it is conducive to effective mechanical transmission by many biting arthropods. Atypical clinical forms, referred to as amyxomatous, of variable severity and with an apparent preference for direct transmission, have recently emerged in Europe. Virus-host interactions have been particularly well studied since the voluntary introduction of the myxoma virus into Australia and Europe, revealing a remarkable process of co-evolution. Molecular analysis has recently demonstrated the extraordinary evolutionary capacity of the myxoma virus.
Topics: Animals; Myxoma virus; Poxviridae Infections; Rabbits; Tumor Virus Infections
PubMed: 26601455
DOI: No ID Found -
Indian Journal of Ophthalmology May 2023After the global COVID-19 pandemic, there has been an alarming concern with the monkeypox (mpox) outbreak, which has affected more than 110 countries worldwide.... (Review)
Review
After the global COVID-19 pandemic, there has been an alarming concern with the monkeypox (mpox) outbreak, which has affected more than 110 countries worldwide. Monkeypox virus is a doublestranded DNA virus of the genus Orthopox of the Poxviridae family, which causes this zoonotic disease. Recently, the mpox outbreak was declared by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC). Monkeypox patients can present with ophthalmic manifestation and ophthalmologists have a role to play in managing this rare entity. Apart from causing systemic involvement such as skin lesions, respiratory infection and involvement of body fluids, Monkeypox related ophthalmic disease (MPXROD) causes varied ocular manifestations such as lid and adnexal involvement, periorbital and lid lesion, periorbital rash, conjunctivitis, blepharocounctivitis and keratitis. A detailed literature review shows few reports on MPXROD infections with limited overview on management strategies. The current review article is aimed to provide the ophthalmologist with an overview of the disease with a spotlight on ophthalmic features. We briefly discuss the morphology of the MPX, various modes of transmission, an infectious pathway of the virus, and the host immune response. A brief overview of the systemic manifestations and complications has also been elucidated. We especially highlight the detailed ophthalmic manifestations of mpox, their management, and prevention of vision threatening sequelae.
Topics: Humans; COVID-19; Mpox (monkeypox); Pandemics; Eye; Body Fluids
PubMed: 37203020
DOI: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_2032_22 -
Annales de Dermatologie Et de... May 2019Poxvirus (PXV) infections are a common cause of cutaneous signs. In France, certain forms of poxvirus are frequent and benign (molluscum contagiosum), while others are... (Review)
Review
Poxvirus (PXV) infections are a common cause of cutaneous signs. In France, certain forms of poxvirus are frequent and benign (molluscum contagiosum), while others are rare but potentially serious (cowpox virus [CPXV]). Whereas only smallpox and molluscum contagiosum viruses have a human reservoir and are transmitted between humans, most poxvirus infections are zoonoses having only animal reservoirs. Only a small number of poxviruses are responsible for infection in humans, but the increasing number of new pets, some of which are exotic, coupled with the rapid rise in international travel are creating a greater risk of transmission of zoonotic PXV to new vectors and of spread of these diseases to new regions throughout the world. In France, molluscum contagiosum, orf and milkers' nodule give rise to numerous consultations and are well known to dermatologists. However, dermatologists must also be able to identify other parapoxviruses of similar presentation to orf; thus, CPXV and monkeypox are considered potentially emergent viruses with a high risk of epidemic and spread due to increasing international transport and the loss of the maximum protection against smallpox. Finally, despite its declared eradication, smallpox is currently being monitored because of the potential risk of reintroduction, whether accidentally or deliberately through bioterrorism.
Topics: Animals; Communicable Diseases, Emerging; Cowpox; Diagnosis, Differential; Disease Reservoirs; France; Humans; Molluscum Contagiosum; Pets; Poxviridae Infections; Skin Diseases, Viral; Smallpox; Zoonoses
PubMed: 31079914
DOI: 10.1016/j.annder.2019.03.001 -
Cell Death and Differentiation Jan 2019The primary function of the immune system is to protect the host from invading pathogens. In response, microbial pathogens have developed various strategies to evade... (Review)
Review
The primary function of the immune system is to protect the host from invading pathogens. In response, microbial pathogens have developed various strategies to evade detection and destruction by the immune system. This tug-of-war between the host and the pathogen is a powerful force that shapes organismal evolution. Regulated cell death (RCD) is a host response that limits the reservoir for intracellular pathogens such as viruses. Since pathogen-specific T cell and B cell responses typically take several days and is therefore slow-developing, RCD of infected cells during the first few days of the infection is critical for organismal survival. This innate immune response not only restricts viral replication, but also serves to promote anti-viral inflammation through cell death-associated release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). In recent years, necroptosis has been recognized as an important response against many viruses. The central adaptor for necroptosis, RIPK3, also exerts anti-viral effects through cell death-independent activities such as promoting cytokine gene expression. Here, we will discuss recent advances on how viruses counteract this host defense mechanism and the effect of necroptosis on the anti-viral inflammatory reaction.
Topics: Cytokines; Herpesviridae Infections; Host-Pathogen Interactions; Humans; Immunity, Innate; Inflammation; Necroptosis; Poxviridae Infections; RNA Virus Infections; Receptor-Interacting Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases; Virus Diseases; Virus Replication; Viruses
PubMed: 30050058
DOI: 10.1038/s41418-018-0172-x -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024In the last 4 years, the world has experienced two pandemics of bat-borne viruses. Firstly, in 2019 the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic started and has been causing millions of... (Review)
Review
In the last 4 years, the world has experienced two pandemics of bat-borne viruses. Firstly, in 2019 the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic started and has been causing millions of deaths around the world. In 2022, a Monkeypox pandemic rose in various countries of the world. Those pandemics have witnessed movements and initiatives from healthcare and research institutions to establish a worldwide understanding to battle any future pandemics and biological threats. One Health concept is a modern, comprehensive, unifying ways to improve humans, animals, and ecosystems' health. This concept shows how much they are intertwined and related to one another, whether it is an environmental, or a pathological relation. This review aims to describe Poxviridae and its impact on the One Health concept, by studying the underlying causes of how poxviruses can affect the health of animals, humans, and environments. Reviewing the effect of disease transmission between animal to human, human to human, and animal to animal with pox viruses as a third party to achieve a total understanding of infection and viral transmission. Thus, contributing to enhance detection, diagnosis, research, and treatments regarding the application of One Health.
Topics: Humans; Animals; Poxviridae Infections; Poxviridae; One Health; COVID-19; Zoonoses; SARS-CoV-2; Pandemics; Viral Zoonoses
PubMed: 38801569
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_2