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Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery Sep 2022Despite substantial advances in assisted reproductive techniques having been recently reported in cats, the use of these is limited and routine application is still far...
PRACTICAL RELEVANCE
Despite substantial advances in assisted reproductive techniques having been recently reported in cats, the use of these is limited and routine application is still far from being a reality in veterinary clinics. Nevertheless, there is an increasing demand from domestic cat breeders for artificial insemination (AI) techniques that are already commonly used in dogs. Where natural breeding is not possible in tom cats and queens of high breeding value, AI could offer a solution. Clinical challenges: AI in cats is more difficult than in other species - both in terms of semen collection/handling and oestrous cycle management given that ovulation must be induced.
AIM
For practitioners wishing to perform AI in queens, there are challenges to overcome, and a good understanding of the techniques and procedures involved is pivotal. This review aims to contribute to improved knowledge by providing an overview of AI protocols, encompassing choice of breeding animals, procedures for semen collection, oestrus and ovulation induction, AI techniques and equipment.
EQUIPMENT AND TECHNICAL SKILLS
Depending on the animals involved and the specific AI technique chosen, essential equipment may include an artificial vagina, electroejaculator, endoscope (sialendoscope, which can be fairly expensive) and special catheters for transcervical insemination. Other instrumentation and materials needed are typically readily available in a veterinary clinic. In general, no particular skills are needed to perform the procedures described in this review, with the exception of endoscopic transcervical catheterisation, where the ability to use an endoscope is required.
EVIDENCE BASE
The information and advice/recommendations provided are based on specific feline research and reviews published in scientific peer-reviewed journals, animal reproduction textbooks, and presentations at national and international congresses. The authors also drew on their own clinical experience with regard to the choice of protocols and procedures presented in this review.
Topics: Animals; Cats; Dogs; Female; Insemination, Artificial; Ovulation; Ovulation Induction; Review Literature as Topic; Vagina
PubMed: 36002144
DOI: 10.1177/1098612X221118756 -
Human Reproduction (Oxford, England) May 2023
Topics: Pregnancy; Female; Male; Humans; Semen; Insemination, Artificial; Fertilization in Vitro; Sexual and Gender Minorities; Reward; Spermatozoa
PubMed: 37009807
DOI: 10.1093/humrep/dead062 -
Animal : An International Journal of... May 2023Artificial insemination (AI) and in vivo embryo production (or multiple ovulation and embryo transfer, MOET) programs are both instrumental in accelerating the... (Review)
Review
Artificial insemination (AI) and in vivo embryo production (or multiple ovulation and embryo transfer, MOET) programs are both instrumental in accelerating the propagation of genetically and economically superior goats and sheep. The aim of this review was to present the current gestalt of non-surgical AI and embryo recovery (NSER) procedures in small ruminants. Small body size, precluding rectal palpation, and highly limited penetrability of the uterine cervix in ewes are the major reasons for the scarce use of non-surgical assisted reproduction techniques in this species. As a result, AI and embryo recovery techniques in sheep mainly involve laparoscopy or laparotomy (LAP). In does, however, the Embrapa method of AI allows for successful intrauterine deposition of semen, resulting in pregnancy rates from 50 to 80% under field conditions (>3 000 goats inseminated) when frozen-thawed semen is used. After the administration of prostaglandin F (PGF), non-surgical (transcervical) embryo recovery is also feasible in goats, with the cervical penetration rate approaching 100%. There is a paucity of information on the efficacy of non-surgical AI using frozen semen in sheep, but the results are satisfactory with fresh, cooled, or chilled ram semen. An application of the NSER technique in ewes has greatly improved over the last decade, and cervical penetration rates of ∼90% can be achieved when a hormonal cervical dilation protocol using PGF, oxytocin, and/or estradiol ester (e.g., estradiol benzoate) is applied. In some genotypes of sheep, sufficient cervical dilation can be induced without estradiol ester included in the protocol. Several studies indicated that recovery of transferable quality ovine embryos using NSER is comparable to that employing a ventral midline laparotomy, and NSER is evidently a method of choice when animal welfare is concerned. Considering both the number of retrievable embryos and animal well-being, the NSER is a viable alternative for surgical procedures. With further developments, it has the makings of a primary, if not exclusive, embryo recovery technique in small ruminants worldwide.
Topics: Pregnancy; Sheep; Animals; Male; Female; Insemination, Artificial; Semen Preservation; Estradiol; Ruminants; Goats
PubMed: 37567658
DOI: 10.1016/j.animal.2023.100787 -
Journal of Dairy Science May 2021The objective was to assess the effectiveness of a comprehensive artificial insemination (AI) training program designed to facilitate an understanding of the breadth of...
The objective was to assess the effectiveness of a comprehensive artificial insemination (AI) training program designed to facilitate an understanding of the breadth of the AI process, including AI skill acquisition, for preclinical veterinary students. Participants (n = 303) were enrolled at the Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine (Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies). The 2-d AI training program (n = 20) consisted of ∼8 h of instruction and ∼8 h of demonstration and hands-on activity. Oral presentations were used to deliver educational content, followed by video clips, discussion, demonstrations, and hands-on activity. Reproductive anatomy and physiology of the estrous cycle, AI sire acquisition, collection, evaluation, cryopreservation and distribution of conventional and sexed semen, storage and handling of frozen semen, use of synchronization protocols, accurate and efficient detection of estrus, and correct AI technique were discussed. True or false pre- and posttests were used to determine the level of knowledge gained by participants during the AI training program. Preclinical veterinary students were required to complete a semen handling and AI technique practical exam to achieve a certificate of completion. Participant program evaluations conducted at the conclusion of the program indicated that veterinary students found the content, structure, discussion, demonstrations, and hands-on activities to be appropriate and useful. No negative comments were offered about the training program, instructor, or activity coinstructors. The AI training program increased the posttest knowledge scores of veterinary students by 22 percentage points. Only 1 participant was unable to achieve a certificate of completion due to failure of the semen handling and AI technique practical exam. These results provide evidence that the AI training program was relevant and effective and that it offered information and skill acquisition with immediate field application.
Topics: Animals; Cattle; Estrus; Estrus Detection; Estrus Synchronization; Female; Humans; Insemination, Artificial; Semen; Students
PubMed: 33612224
DOI: 10.3168/jds.2020-19655 -
Animal : An International Journal of... Mar 2022Over the last century, several reproductive biotechnologies beyond the artificial incubation of eggs were developed to improve poultry breeding stocks and conserve their... (Review)
Review
Over the last century, several reproductive biotechnologies beyond the artificial incubation of eggs were developed to improve poultry breeding stocks and conserve their genetic diversity. These include artificial insemination (AI), semen storage, diploid primordial germ cell (PGC) methodologies, and gonad tissue storage and transplantation. Currently, AI is widely used for selection purposes in the poultry industry, in the breeding of turkeys and guinea fowl, and to solve fertility problems in duck interspecies crosses for the production of mule ducklings. The decline in some wild game species has also raised interest in reproductive technologies as a means of increasing the production of fertile eggs, and ultimately the number of birds that can be raised. AI requires viable sperm to be preserved in vitro for either short (fresh) or longer periods (chilling or freezing). Since spermatozoa are the most easily accessed sex cells, they are the cell type most commonly preserved by genetic resource banks. However, the cryopreservation of sperm only preserves half of the genome, and it cannot preserve the W chromosome. For avian species, the problem of preserving oocytes and zygotes may be solved via the cryopreservation and transplantation of PGCs and gonad tissue. The present review describes all these procedures and discusses how combining these different technologies allows poultry populations to be conserved and even rapidly reconstituted.
Topics: Animals; Cryopreservation; Insemination, Artificial; Male; Ovum; Plant Breeding; Poultry; Semen Preservation; Spermatozoa
PubMed: 35220173
DOI: 10.1016/j.animal.2022.100475 -
Animal : An International Journal of... Jun 2018Artificial insemination has been a landmark procedure in improving animal agriculture over the past 150 years. The utility of artificial insemination has facilitated a... (Review)
Review
Artificial insemination has been a landmark procedure in improving animal agriculture over the past 150 years. The utility of artificial insemination has facilitated a rapid improvement in animal genetics across agricultural species, leading to improvements of growth, health and productivity in poultry, swine, equine and cattle species. The utility of artificial insemination, as with all assisted reproductive technologies side-steps thousands of years of evolution that has led to the development of physiological systems to ensure the transmission of genetics from generation to generation. The perceived manipulation of these physiological systems as a consequence of assisted reproduction are points of interest in which research could potentially improve the success of these technologies. Indeed, seminal fluid is either removed or substantially diluted when semen is prepared for artificial insemination in domestic species. Although seminal fluid is not a requirement for pregnancy, could the removal of seminal fluid from the ejaculate have negative consequences on reproductive outcomes that could be improved to further the economic benefit of artificial insemination? One such potential influence of seminal fluid on reproduction stems from the question; how does the allogeneic foetus survive gestation in the face of the maternal immune system? Observation of the maternal immune system during pregnancy has noted maternal immune tolerance to paternal-specific antigens; a mechanism by which the maternal immune system tolerates specific paternal antigens expressed on the foetus. In species like human or rodent, implantation occurs days after fertilisation and as such the mechanisms to establish antigen-specific tolerance must be initiated very early during pregnancy. We and others propose that these mechanisms are initiated at the time of insemination when paternal antigens are first introduced to the maternal immune system. It is unclear whether such mechanisms would also be involved in domestic species, such as cattle, where implantation occurs weeks later in gestation. A new paradigm detailing the importance of paternal-maternal communication at the time of insemination is becoming evident as it relates to maternal tolerance to foetal antigen and ultimately pregnancy success.
Topics: Animals; Cattle; Embryo Implantation; Female; Horses; Humans; Immune Tolerance; Insemination; Insemination, Artificial; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Outcome; Semen; Swine
PubMed: 29455706
DOI: 10.1017/S1751731118000083 -
Journal of Dairy Science Dec 2017Basic knowledge of mechanisms controlling reproductive processes in mammals was limited in the early 20th century. Discoveries of physiologic processes and mechanisms... (Review)
Review
Basic knowledge of mechanisms controlling reproductive processes in mammals was limited in the early 20th century. Discoveries of physiologic processes and mechanisms made early in the last century laid the foundation to develop technologies and programs used today to manage and control reproduction in dairy cattle. Beyond advances made in understanding of gonadotropic support and control of ovarian and uterine functions in basic reproductive biology, advancements made in artificial insemination (AI) and genetics facilitated rapid genetic progress of economically important traits in dairy cattle. Technologies associated with management have each contributed to the evolution of reproductive management, including (1) hormones to induce estrus and ovulation to facilitate AI programs; (2) pregnancy diagnosis via ultrasonography or by measuring conceptus-derived pregnancy-associated glycoproteins; (3) estrus-detection aids first devised for monitoring only physical activity but that now also quantitate feeding, resting, and rumination times, and ear temperature; (4) sex-sorted semen; (5) computers and computerized record software packages; (6) handheld devices for tracking cow location and retrieving cow records; and (7) genomics for increasing genetic progress of reproductive and other economically important traits. Because of genetic progress in milk yield and component traits, the dairy population in the United States has been stable since the mid 1990s, with approximately 9 to 9.5 million cows. Therefore, many of these technologies and changes in management have been developed in the face of increasing herd size (4-fold since 1990), and changes from pastoral or dry-lot dairies to increased housing of cows in confinement buildings with freestalls and feed-line lockups. Management of groups of "like" cows has become equally important as management of the one. Management teams, including owner-managers, herdsmen, AI representatives, milkers, and numerous consultants dealing with health, feeding, and facilities, became essential to develop working protocols, monitor training and day-to-day chores, and evaluate current trends and revenues. Good management teams inspect and follow through with what is routinely expected of workers. As herd size will undoubtedly increase in the future, practical reproductive management must evolve to adapt to the new technologies that may find more herds being milked robotically and applying technologies not yet conceived or introduced.
Topics: Animals; Cattle; Dairying; Female; Insemination, Artificial; Pregnancy; Reproduction
PubMed: 29153166
DOI: 10.3168/jds.2017-12959 -
Animal : An International Journal of... May 2023The domestic buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), also known as water buffalo, comprises two sub-species the River buffalo (B. bubalis ssp. bubalis; 50 chromosomes) and the Swamp... (Review)
Review
The domestic buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), also known as water buffalo, comprises two sub-species the River buffalo (B. bubalis ssp. bubalis; 50 chromosomes) and the Swamp buffalo (ssp. carabanensis; 48 chromosomes). Domestic buffaloes are a globally significant livestock species. In South Asia, the River buffalo is a primary source of milk and meat and has a very important role in food security. The River buffalo also supports high-value, differentiated food production in Europe and the Americas. The Swamp buffalo is an important draft animal and a source of food in Southeast Asia and East Asia. The growing importance of buffaloes requires that they undergo an accelerated rate of genetic gain for efficiency of production, product quality, and sustainability. This will involve the increased use of assisted reproduction. The initial application of reproductive technology in buffaloes had variable success as it relied on the adoption of procedures developed for cattle. This included artificial insemination (AI), sperm cryopreservation, and embryo technologies such as cloning and in vitro embryo production (IVEP). Reproductive technology has been progressively refined in buffaloes, and today, the success of AI and IVEP is comparable to cattle. Ovarian follicular superstimulation (superovulation) combined with in vivo embryo production results in low embryo recovery in buffaloes and has limited practical application. The contribution of elite female buffaloes to future genetic improvement will therefore rely mainly on oocyte pickup and IVEP. This will include IVEP from females before puberty to reduce generation intervals. This review provides for the first time a clear chronology on the development, adoption, and impact, of assisted reproduction in domestic buffaloes.
Topics: Cattle; Animals; Female; Male; Buffaloes; Semen; Sexual Maturation; Reproduction; Insemination, Artificial
PubMed: 37567675
DOI: 10.1016/j.animal.2023.100764 -
Theriogenology Jan 2016Despite the great potential application of sex-sorted spermatozoa in swine, the technology is not practiced in the pig industry because of technical factors and... (Review)
Review
Despite the great potential application of sex-sorted spermatozoa in swine, the technology is not practiced in the pig industry because of technical factors and species-specific issues. The susceptibility of boar spermatozoa to stresses induced by the sorting procedure, the relative slowness of the sex-sorting process together with the high sperm numbers required for routine artificial insemination in pig are some of the main factors limiting the commercial application of this technology in pigs. This review briefly describes the damage to spermatozoa during sex sorting, focusing on an additional limiting factor: increased susceptibility of sexed boar spermatozoa to injuries induced by liquid storage and cryopreservation that, in turn, impairs sperm quality leading to unsatisfactory results in vivo. Strategies to extend the lifespan of sex-sorted boar spermatozoa and to improve their fertilizing ability after liquid storage or cryopreservation need to be implemented before this technology can be used in pig farms. In this regard, encapsulation in barium alginate membranes could be a promising technique to optimize the in vivo use of sexed boar spermatozoa, by protecting, targeting, and controlling the release of sperm into the female genital tract.
Topics: Animals; Female; Insemination, Artificial; Male; Semen; Semen Preservation; Sex Preselection; Swine
PubMed: 26116059
DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2015.05.018 -
Animal : An International Journal of... Jun 2018The aim of this review is to compare the performance of different reproductive programs using natural service, estrus synchronization treatment before natural service... (Review)
Review
The aim of this review is to compare the performance of different reproductive programs using natural service, estrus synchronization treatment before natural service (timed natural breeding (TNB)), artificial insemination (AI) following estrus detection and timed artificial insemination (TAI) in beef herds. It is well known that after parturition the beef cow undergoes a period of anestrous, when they do not exhibit estrus, eliminating the opportunity to become pregnant in the early postpartum by natural mating or by AI after detection of estrus. Hormonal stimulation is already a consistent and well-proven strategy used to overcome postpartum anestrus in beef herds. Basically, hormones that normally are produced during the estrous cycle of the cow can be administered in physiological doses to induce cyclicity and to precisely synchronize follicular growth, estrus and ovulation. Furthermore, two options of mating may be used after hormonal stimulation: natural service (i.e. utilization of bull service after synchronization, referred to as TNB) and TAI. These strategies improve the reproductive efficiency of the herds compared with natural service without estrus induction or synchronization. After the first synchronized service, the most common strategy adopted to get non-pregnant cows pregnant soon is the introduction of clean-up bulls until the end of the breeding season. However, methods to resynchronize non-pregnant cows after the first service are already well established and offer a potential tool to reduce the time for subsequent inseminations. Thus, the use of these technologies enable to eliminate the use of bulls by using resynchronization programs (i.e. two, three or four sequential TAI procedures). The dissemination of efficient reproductive procedures, such as TNB, TAI and Resynch programs, either isolated or in combination, enables the production of a greater quantity (obtaining increased pregnancy rates early in the breeding season) and quality (maximization of the use of AI with superior genetic sires) of beef calves. These technologies can contribute to improve the production efficiency, and consequently, improve livestock profitability.
Topics: Animals; Cattle; Estrus; Estrus Detection; Estrus Synchronization; Female; Insemination, Artificial; Male; Pregnancy; Progesterone; Red Meat
PubMed: 29554986
DOI: 10.1017/S175173111800054X