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International Journal of Molecular... Jan 2022Metabolic syndrome (MetS) forms a cluster of metabolic dysregulations including insulin resistance, atherogenic dyslipidemia, central obesity, and hypertension. The... (Review)
Review
Metabolic syndrome (MetS) forms a cluster of metabolic dysregulations including insulin resistance, atherogenic dyslipidemia, central obesity, and hypertension. The pathogenesis of MetS encompasses multiple genetic and acquired entities that fall under the umbrella of insulin resistance and chronic low-grade inflammation. If left untreated, MetS is significantly associated with an increased risk of developing diabetes and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Given that CVDs constitute by far the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, it has become essential to investigate the role played by MetS in this context to reduce the heavy burden of the disease. As such, and while MetS relatively constitutes a novel clinical entity, the extent of research about the disease has been exponentially growing in the past few decades. However, many aspects of this clinical entity are still not completely understood, and many questions remain unanswered to date. In this review, we provide a historical background and highlight the epidemiology of MetS. We also discuss the current and latest knowledge about the histopathology and pathophysiology of the disease. Finally, we summarize the most recent updates about the management and the prevention of this clinical syndrome.
Topics: Biomarkers; Chronic Disease; Disease Management; Disease Susceptibility; Humans; Inflammation; Insulin Resistance; Metabolic Syndrome; Mitochondria; Organ Specificity; Prevalence; Public Health Surveillance
PubMed: 35054972
DOI: 10.3390/ijms23020786 -
Current Hypertension Reports Feb 2018Metabolic syndrome, variously known also as syndrome X, insulin resistance, etc., is defined by WHO as a pathologic condition characterized by abdominal obesity, insulin... (Review)
Review
Metabolic syndrome, variously known also as syndrome X, insulin resistance, etc., is defined by WHO as a pathologic condition characterized by abdominal obesity, insulin resistance, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. Though there is some variation in the definition by other health care organization, the differences are minor. With the successful conquest of communicable infectious diseases in most of the world, this new non-communicable disease (NCD) has become the major health hazard of modern world. Though it started in the Western world, with the spread of the Western lifestyle across the globe, it has become now a truly global problem. The prevalence of the metabolic syndrome is often more in the urban population of some developing countries than in its Western counterparts. The two basic forces spreading this malady are the increase in consumption of high calorie-low fiber fast food and the decrease in physical activity due to mechanized transportations and sedentary form of leisure time activities. The syndrome feeds into the spread of the diseases like type 2 diabetes, coronary diseases, stroke, and other disabilities. The total cost of the malady including the cost of health care and loss of potential economic activity is in trillions. The present trend is not sustainable unless a magic cure is found (unlikely) or concerted global/governmental/societal efforts are made to change the lifestyle that is promoting it. There are certainly some elements in the causation of the metabolic syndrome that cannot be changed but many are amenable for corrections and curtailments. For example, better urban planning to encourage active lifestyle, subsidizing consumption of whole grains and possible taxing high calorie snacks, restricting media advertisement of unhealthy food, etc. Revitalizing old fashion healthier lifestyle, promoting old-fashioned foods using healthy herbs rather than oil and sugar, and educating people about choosing healthy/wholesome food over junks are among the steps that can be considered.
Topics: Epidemics; Exercise; Female; Global Health; Humans; Incidence; Life Style; Male; Metabolic Syndrome; Prevalence
PubMed: 29480368
DOI: 10.1007/s11906-018-0812-z -
Nutrients Nov 2020Most clinicians and health professionals have heard or read about metabolic syndrome [...].
Most clinicians and health professionals have heard or read about metabolic syndrome [...].
Topics: History, 20th Century; Humans; Insulin Resistance; Intra-Abdominal Fat; Liver; Metabolic Syndrome; Obesity, Abdominal; Risk Factors
PubMed: 33202550
DOI: 10.3390/nu12113501 -
Nutrients Apr 2022Individuals with metabolic syndrome have increased risk for developing health conditions, including cardiovascular diseases and stroke. Modifiable risk factors, such as... (Review)
Review
Individuals with metabolic syndrome have increased risk for developing health conditions, including cardiovascular diseases and stroke. Modifiable risk factors, such as exercise and diet, are key components in the prevention and control of metabolic syndrome. Specifically, dietary patterns and habits are extremely successful in controlling more than one of the metabolic syndrome risk factors. Meal timing and frequency have been associated with type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and other chronic conditions. However, there is limited evidence linking metabolic syndrome to meal timing and meal frequency. This review summarizes and discusses how meal timing and frequency impact metabolic outcomes in adults.
Topics: Adult; Cardiovascular Diseases; Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2; Feeding Behavior; Humans; Meals; Metabolic Syndrome
PubMed: 35565686
DOI: 10.3390/nu14091719 -
Nutrients Jul 2019Both observational and interventional studies suggest an important role for physical activity and higher fitness in mitigating the metabolic syndrome. Each component of... (Review)
Review
Both observational and interventional studies suggest an important role for physical activity and higher fitness in mitigating the metabolic syndrome. Each component of the metabolic syndrome is, to a certain extent, favorably influenced by interventions that include physical activity. Given that the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome and its individual components (particularly obesity and insulin resistance) has increased significantly in recent decades, guidelines from various professional organizations have called for greater efforts to reduce the incidence of this condition and its components. While physical activity interventions that lead to improved fitness cannot be expected to normalize insulin resistance, lipid disorders, or obesity, the combined effect of increasing activity on these risk markers, an improvement in fitness, or both, has been shown to have a major impact on health outcomes related to the metabolic syndrome. Exercise therapy is a cost-effective intervention to both prevent and mitigate the impact of the metabolic syndrome, but it remains underutilized. In the current article, an overview of the effects of physical activity and higher fitness on the metabolic syndrome is provided, along with a discussion of the mechanisms underlying the benefits of being more fit or more physically active in the prevention and treatment of the metabolic syndrome.
Topics: Adult; Cardiorespiratory Fitness; Cardiovascular Diseases; Exercise; Female; Humans; Insulin Resistance; Male; Metabolic Syndrome; Middle Aged; Obesity; Physical Fitness; Risk Factors
PubMed: 31331009
DOI: 10.3390/nu11071652 -
The Journal of Clinical Investigation Oct 2019The metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a constellation of risk factors that, if left untreated, will often progress to greater metabolic defects such as type 2 diabetes and... (Review)
Review
The metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a constellation of risk factors that, if left untreated, will often progress to greater metabolic defects such as type 2 diabetes and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. While these risk factors have been established for over 40 years, the definition of MetS warrants reconsideration in light of the substantial data that have emerged from studies of the gut microbiome. In this Review we present the existing recent literature that supports the gut microbiome's potential influence on the various risk factors of MetS. The interplay of the intestinal microbiota with host metabolism has been shown to be mediated by a myriad of factors, including a defective gut barrier, bile acid metabolism, antibiotic use, and the pleiotropic effects of microbially produced metabolites. These data show that events that start in the gut, often in response to external cues such as diet and circadian disruption, have far-reaching effects beyond the gut.
Topics: Animals; Diet; Dyslipidemias; Fecal Microbiota Transplantation; Gastrointestinal Microbiome; Host Microbial Interactions; Humans; Inflammation; Insulin Resistance; Metabolic Syndrome; Models, Biological; Obesity
PubMed: 31573550
DOI: 10.1172/JCI129194 -
Circulation Nov 2023A growing appreciation of the pathophysiological interrelatedness of metabolic risk factors such as obesity and diabetes, chronic kidney disease, and cardiovascular... (Review)
Review
A Synopsis of the Evidence for the Science and Clinical Management of Cardiovascular-Kidney-Metabolic (CKM) Syndrome: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association.
A growing appreciation of the pathophysiological interrelatedness of metabolic risk factors such as obesity and diabetes, chronic kidney disease, and cardiovascular disease has led to the conceptualization of cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome. The confluence of metabolic risk factors and chronic kidney disease within cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome is strongly linked to risk for adverse cardiovascular and kidney outcomes. In addition, there are unique management considerations for individuals with established cardiovascular disease and coexisting metabolic risk factors, chronic kidney disease, or both. An extensive body of literature supports our scientific understanding of, and approach to, prevention and management for individuals with cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome. However, there are critical gaps in knowledge related to cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome in terms of mechanisms of disease development, heterogeneity within clinical phenotypes, interplay between social determinants of health and biological risk factors, and accurate assessments of disease incidence in the context of competing risks. There are also key limitations in the data supporting the clinical care for cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome, particularly in terms of early-life prevention, screening for risk factors, interdisciplinary care models, optimal strategies for supporting lifestyle modification and weight loss, targeting of emerging cardioprotective and kidney-protective therapies, management of patients with both cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease, and the impact of systematically assessing and addressing social determinants of health. This scientific statement uses a crosswalk of major guidelines, in addition to a review of the scientific literature, to summarize the evidence and fundamental gaps related to the science, screening, prevention, and management of cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome.
Topics: United States; Humans; Cardiovascular Diseases; Metabolic Syndrome; American Heart Association; Risk Factors; Kidney; Renal Insufficiency, Chronic
PubMed: 37807920
DOI: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000001186 -
Therapeutic Advances in Cardiovascular... Aug 2017Metabolic syndrome (MetS) represents a cluster of metabolic abnormalities that include hypertension, central obesity, insulin resistance, and atherogenic dyslipidemia,... (Review)
Review
Metabolic syndrome (MetS) represents a cluster of metabolic abnormalities that include hypertension, central obesity, insulin resistance, and atherogenic dyslipidemia, and is strongly associated with an increased risk for developing diabetes and atherosclerotic and nonatherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD). The pathogenesis of MetS involves both genetic and acquired factors that contribute to the final pathway of inflammation that leads to CVD. MetS has gained significant importance recently due to the exponential increase in obesity worldwide. Early diagnosis is important in order to employ lifestyle and risk factor modification. Here, we review the epidemiology and pathogenesis of MetS, the role of inflammation in MetS, and summarize existing natural therapies for MetS.
Topics: Anti-Inflammatory Agents; Dietary Supplements; Early Diagnosis; Humans; Inflammation; Metabolic Syndrome; Predictive Value of Tests; Risk Factors; Treatment Outcome
PubMed: 28639538
DOI: 10.1177/1753944717711379 -
Nutrients Oct 2019We aimed to assess the association of sleep with metabolic syndrome in the 2013/2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). (Review)
Review
BACKGROUND
We aimed to assess the association of sleep with metabolic syndrome in the 2013/2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES).
METHODS
Sample size included 2737 out of 2013 and 2014 NHANES surveys. Cross-sectional study of metabolic syndrome and sleep duration was conducted. Metabolic syndrome was defined according to NCEP ATPIII (National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III) criteria. Metabolic syndrome severity score was calculated based on actual measurement of each component, adjusted for sex and race. The generalized additive model (GAM) was built to assess the smooth relationship between metabolic syndrome/metabolic syndrome severity score and sleep duration. Adjustment of models were done for age, sex, race, and sitting time. The value of effective degree of freedom (EDF) formed by the GAM model shows the degree of curvature of the relationship. A value of 1 for EDF is translated as the linear shape of relationship. Values larger than one denote a more complex relationship between the response variable and the predicting one.
RESULTS
There was a U-shaped association between sleep duration and metabolic syndrome in univariable GAM (EDF = 2.43, = 0.06) and multivariable GAM (EDF = 2.03, = 0.20). The lowest risk of metabolic syndrome was observed in people sleeping 7 hours/night. There was a significant U-shaped association between sleep duration and metabolic syndrome severity score in multivariable GAM (EDF = 2.94, = 0.0004). Similarly, the lowest mean metabolic syndrome severity score was observed in people sleeping 7 hours/night. There was an effect modification of sex and sleep duration indicating strong U-shaped relationship of metabolic syndrome severity score and sleep duration in women (EDF = 3.43, = 0.00002) and semi-linear association in men (EDF = 1.76, = 0.04).
CONCLUSION
Short and long sleep duration was associated with higher risk of metabolic syndrome and higher scores of metabolic syndrome severity score in women. Short sleep duration was associated with higher risk of metabolic syndrome and higher scores of metabolic syndrome severity score in men.
Topics: Adolescent; Adult; Aged; Aged, 80 and over; Cross-Sectional Studies; Female; Humans; Male; Metabolic Syndrome; Middle Aged; Nutrition Surveys; Sleep; Young Adult
PubMed: 31717770
DOI: 10.3390/nu11112582 -
International Journal of Molecular... Aug 2021Uric acid (UA) is synthesized mainly in the liver, intestines, and vascular endothelium as the end product of an exogenous purine from food and endogenously from... (Review)
Review
Molecular Biological and Clinical Understanding of the Pathophysiology and Treatments of Hyperuricemia and Its Association with Metabolic Syndrome, Cardiovascular Diseases and Chronic Kidney Disease.
Uric acid (UA) is synthesized mainly in the liver, intestines, and vascular endothelium as the end product of an exogenous purine from food and endogenously from damaged, dying, and dead cells. The kidney plays a dominant role in UA excretion, and the kidney excretes approximately 70% of daily produced UA; the remaining 30% of UA is excreted from the intestine. When UA production exceeds UA excretion, hyperuricemia occurs. Hyperuricemia is significantly associated with the development and severity of the metabolic syndrome. The increased urate transporter 1 (URAT1) and glucose transporter 9 (GLUT9) expression, and glycolytic disturbances due to insulin resistance may be associated with the development of hyperuricemia in metabolic syndrome. Hyperuricemia was previously thought to be simply the cause of gout and gouty arthritis. Further, the hyperuricemia observed in patients with renal diseases was considered to be caused by UA underexcretion due to renal failure, and was not considered as an aggressive treatment target. The evidences obtained by basic science suggests a pathogenic role of hyperuricemia in the development of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and cardiovascular diseases (CVD), by inducing inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells, and activation of the renin-angiotensin system. Further, clinical evidences suggest that hyperuricemia is associated with the development of CVD and CKD. Further, accumulated data suggested that the UA-lowering treatments slower the progression of such diseases.
Topics: Animals; Biomarkers; Cardiovascular Diseases; Disease Management; Disease Susceptibility; Humans; Hyperuricemia; Metabolic Syndrome; Renal Insufficiency, Chronic; Severity of Illness Index
PubMed: 34502127
DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179221