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Early Human Development Nov 2015Breast milk is the perfect nutrition for infants, a result of millions of years of evolution, finely attuning it to the requirements of the infant. Breast milk contains... (Review)
Review
Breast milk is the perfect nutrition for infants, a result of millions of years of evolution, finely attuning it to the requirements of the infant. Breast milk contains many complex proteins, lipids and carbohydrates, the concentrations of which alter dramatically over a single feed, as well as over lactation, to reflect the infant's needs. In addition to providing a source of nutrition for infants, breast milk contains a myriad of biologically active components. These molecules possess diverse roles, both guiding the development of the infants immune system and intestinal microbiota. Orchestrating the development of the microbiota are the human milk oligosaccharides, the synthesis of which are determined by the maternal genotype. In this review, we discuss the composition of breast milk and the factors that affect it during the course of breast feeding. Understanding the components of breast milk and their functions will allow for the improvement of clinical practices, infant feeding and our understanding of immune responses to infection and vaccination in infants.
Topics: Breast Feeding; Female; Humans; Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Infant, Newborn; Lactation; Lipids; Milk Proteins; Milk, Human; Oligosaccharides
PubMed: 26375355
DOI: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2015.08.013 -
La Pediatria Medica E Chirurgica :... Jun 2017Breastfeeding is widely acknowledged as the normal and unequalled method for feeding infants due to its associated health benefits, both for the infant and the mother.... (Review)
Review
Breastfeeding is widely acknowledged as the normal and unequalled method for feeding infants due to its associated health benefits, both for the infant and the mother. The World Health Organization recommends that infants are exclusively breastfed up to the completion of six months of age, with breastfeeding continuing to be an important part of the diet until the infant is at least two years old. The several health benefits associated with breastfeeding are driven by the combined action of the nutritional and bioactive components in human milk and the magnitude of the majority of the ascertained biological effects is directly dependent on breastfeeding duration.This review briefly summarizes the current knowledge on the composition of human milk and provides an overview on its functional effects on health outcomes, focusing on the latest research results.
Topics: Age Factors; Breast Feeding; Child, Preschool; Female; Humans; Infant; Infant, Newborn; Milk, Human; Mothers; Time Factors
PubMed: 28673076
DOI: 10.4081/pmc.2017.155 -
Nutrients Sep 2021Human breast milk (HBM) is not only an indispensable source of nutrients for early human growth and development, supplying components that support infant growth and... (Review)
Review
Human breast milk (HBM) is not only an indispensable source of nutrients for early human growth and development, supplying components that support infant growth and development, but also contains various essential immunologic components with anti-infectious activities and critical roles in the formation of immunity. It is also known that HBM contains its own unique microbiome, including beneficial, commensal, and potentially probiotic bacteria, that can contribute to infant gut colonization. In addition, HBM-derived extracellular vesicles, exosomes, and microRNA are attracting increasing interest for their potential to transfer to the infant and their role in infant development. In this article, we examine some of the various constituents in HBM and review the evidence supporting their associated health effects and their potential applications in human health.
Topics: Child Development; Female; Health Status; Humans; Immune System; Infant; Infant, Newborn; MicroRNAs; Microbiota; Milk, Human; Nutritive Value
PubMed: 34578971
DOI: 10.3390/nu13093094 -
Nutrients Apr 2020Human breast milk is considered the optimum feeding regime for newborn infants due to its ability to provide complete nutrition and many bioactive health factors. Breast... (Review)
Review
Human breast milk is considered the optimum feeding regime for newborn infants due to its ability to provide complete nutrition and many bioactive health factors. Breast feeding is associated with improved infant health and immune development, less incidences of gastrointestinal disease and lower mortality rates than formula fed infants. As well as providing fundamental nutrients to the growing infant, breast milk is a source of commensal bacteria which further enhance infant health by preventing pathogen adhesion and promoting gut colonisation of beneficial microbes. While breast milk was initially considered a sterile fluid and microbes isolated were considered contaminants, it is now widely accepted that breast milk is home to its own unique microbiome. The origins of bacteria in breast milk have been subject to much debate, however, the possibility of an entero-mammary pathway allowing for transfer of microbes from maternal gut to the mammary gland is one potential pathway. Human milk derived strains can be regarded as potential probiotics; therefore, many studies have focused on isolating strains from milk for subsequent use in infant health and nutrition markets. This review aims to discuss mammary gland development in preparation for lactation as well as explore the microbial composition and origins of the human milk microbiota with a focus on probiotic development.
Topics: Breast Feeding; Female; Gastrointestinal Diseases; Gastrointestinal Microbiome; Humans; Infant; Infant Health; Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Infant, Newborn; Male; Milk, Human; Probiotics
PubMed: 32283875
DOI: 10.3390/nu12041039 -
Revista Da Associacao Medica Brasileira... Sep 2016In the critical phase of immunological immaturity of the newborn, particularly for the immune system of mucous membranes, infants receive large amounts of bioactive... (Review)
Review
In the critical phase of immunological immaturity of the newborn, particularly for the immune system of mucous membranes, infants receive large amounts of bioactive components through colostrum and breast milk. Colostrum is the most potent natural immune booster known to science. Breastfeeding protects infants against infections mainly via secretory IgA (SIgA) antibodies, but also via other various bioactive factors. It is striking that the defense factors of human milk function without causing inflammation; some components are even anti-inflammatory. Protection against infections has been well evidenced during lactation against, e.g., acute and prolonged diarrhea, respiratory tract infections, including otitis media, urinary tract infection, neonatal septicemia, and necrotizing enterocolitis. The milk's immunity content changes over time. In the early stages of lactation, IgA, anti-inflammatory factors and, more likely, immunologically active cells provide additional support for the immature immune system of the neonate. After this period, breast milk continues to adapt extraordinarily to the infant's ontogeny and needs regarding immune protection and nutrition. The need to encourage breastfeeding is therefore justifiable, at least during the first 6 months of life, when the infant's secretory IgA production is insignificant.
Topics: Colostrum; Humans; Immune System; Milk, Human
PubMed: 27849237
DOI: 10.1590/1806-9282.62.06.584 -
Nutrients Mar 2021Human milk represents a cornerstone for growth and development of infants, with extensive array of benefits. In addition to exceptionally nutritive and bioactive... (Review)
Review
Human milk represents a cornerstone for growth and development of infants, with extensive array of benefits. In addition to exceptionally nutritive and bioactive components, human milk encompasses a complex community of signature bacteria that helps establish infant gut microbiota, contributes to maturation of infant immune system, and competitively interferes with pathogens. Among bioactive constituents of milk, human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are particularly significant. These are non-digestible carbohydrates forming the third largest solid component in human milk. Valuable effects of HMOs include shaping intestinal microbiota, imparting antimicrobial effects, developing intestinal barrier, and modulating immune response. Moreover, recent investigations suggest correlations between HMOs and milk microbiota, with complex links possibly existing with environmental factors, genetics, geographical location, and other factors. In this review, and from a physiological and health implications perspective, milk benefits for newborns and mothers are highlighted. From a microbiological perspective, a focused insight into milk microbiota, including origins, diversity, benefits, and effect of maternal diet is presented. From a metabolic perspective, biochemical, physiological, and genetic significance of HMOs, and their probable relations to milk microbiota, are addressed. Ongoing research into mechanistic processes through which the rich biological assets of milk promote development, shaping of microbiota, and immunity is tackled.
Topics: Bacteria; Female; Humans; Microbiota; Milk, Human; Oligosaccharides
PubMed: 33805503
DOI: 10.3390/nu13041123 -
Digestive Diseases and Sciences Mar 2020This review summarizes the key results of recently published studies on the effects of dietary change and nutritional intervention on the human microbiome from around... (Review)
Review
This review summarizes the key results of recently published studies on the effects of dietary change and nutritional intervention on the human microbiome from around the world, focusing on the USA, Canada, Europe, Asia, and Africa. It first explores mechanisms that might explain the ability of fiber-rich foods to suppress the incidence and mortality from westernized diseases, notably cancers of the colon, breast, liver, cardiovascular, infectious, and respiratory diseases, diabetes, and obesity (O'Keefe in Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 4(12):984-996, 2019; Am J Clin Nutr 110:265-266, 2019). It summarizes studies from Africa which suggest that disturbance of the colonic microbiome may exacerbate chronic malnutrition and growth failure in impoverished communities and highlights the importance of breast feeding. The American section discusses the role of the microbiome in the swelling population of patients with obesity and type 2 diabetes and examines the effects of race, ethnicity, geography, and climate on microbial diversity and metabolism. The studies from Europe and Asia extoll the benefits of whole foods and plant-based diets. The Asian studies examine the worrying changes from low-fat, high-carbohydrate diets to high-fat, low-carbohydrate ones and the increasing appearance of westernized diseases as in Africa and documents the ability of high-fiber traditional Chinese diets to reverse type 2 diabetes and control weight loss. In conclusion, most of the studies reviewed demonstrate clear changes in microbe abundances and in the production of fermentation products, such as short-chain fatty acids and phytochemicals following dietary change, but the significance of the microbiota changes to human health, with the possible exception of the stimulation of butyrogenic taxa by fiber-rich foods, is generally implied and not measured. Further studies are needed to determine how these changes in microbiota composition and metabolism can improve our health and be used to prevent and treat disease.
Topics: Diet; Diet, Western; Dietary Fiber; Gastrointestinal Microbiome; Humans; Internationality; Milk, Human
PubMed: 32060812
DOI: 10.1007/s10620-020-06112-w -
Nutrients Mar 2020The intestinal microbiome plays an important role in maintaining health throughout life. The microbiota develops progressively after birth and is influenced by many... (Review)
Review
The intestinal microbiome plays an important role in maintaining health throughout life. The microbiota develops progressively after birth and is influenced by many factors, including the mode of delivery, antibiotics, and diet. Maternal milk is critically important to the development of the neonatal intestinal microbiota. Different bioactive components of milk, such as human milk oligosaccharides, lactoferrin, and secretory immunoglobulins, modify the composition of the neonatal microbiota. In this article, we review the role of each of these maternal milk-derived bioactive factors on the microbiota and how this modulation of intestinal bacteria shapes health, and disease.
Topics: Anti-Bacterial Agents; Biodiversity; Breast Feeding; Female; Gastrointestinal Microbiome; Humans; Immunoglobulin A, Secretory; Infant, Newborn; Lactoferrin; Milk Proteins; Milk, Human; Nutrients; Oligosaccharides
PubMed: 32244880
DOI: 10.3390/nu12030823 -
Nutrients May 2021Breast milk components contribute to the infant's immune development and protection, and among other immune factors, immunoglobulins (Igs) are the most studied. The... (Meta-Analysis)
Meta-Analysis
Breast milk components contribute to the infant's immune development and protection, and among other immune factors, immunoglobulins (Igs) are the most studied. The presence of IgA in milk has been known for a long time; however, less information is available about the presence of other Igs such as IgM, IgG, and their subtypes (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) or even IgE or IgD. The total Ig concentration and profile will change during the course of lactation; however, there is a great variability among studies due to several variables that limit establishing a clear pattern. In this context, the aim of this review was firstly to shed light on the Ig concentration in breast milk based on scientific evidence and secondly to study the main factors contributing to such variability. A search strategy provided only 75 studies with the prespecified eligibility criteria. The concentrations and proportions found have been established based on the intrinsic factors of the study-such as the sampling time and quantification technique-as well as participant-dependent factors, such as lifestyle and environment. All these factors contribute to the variability of the immunoglobulinome described in the literature and should be carefully addressed for further well-designed studies and data interpretation.
Topics: Breast Feeding; Female; Humans; Immunoglobulin A; Immunoglobulin G; Immunoglobulins; Infant; Lactation; Life Style; Milk, Human; Specimen Handling
PubMed: 34073540
DOI: 10.3390/nu13061810 -
Archivos Argentinos de Pediatria Aug 2018
Topics: Breast Feeding; Colostrum; Female; Humans; Infant, Newborn; Milk, Human; Pregnancy
PubMed: 30016015
DOI: 10.5546/aap.2018.eng.234