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Current Microbiology Dec 2022Mycoplasma pneumoniae, an obligate parasitic pathogen without cell wall, can cause severe upper and lower respiratory tract symptoms. It is the pathogen of human... (Review)
Review
Mycoplasma pneumoniae, an obligate parasitic pathogen without cell wall, can cause severe upper and lower respiratory tract symptoms. It is the pathogen of human bronchitis and walking pneumonia, and named community-acquired pneumonia. In addition to severe respiratory symptoms, there are clinical extrapulmonary manifestations in the skin, brain, kidney, musculoskeletal, digestive system, and even blood system after M. pneumoniae infection. Hereby, we comprehensively summarized and reviewed the intrapulmonary and extrapulmonary pathogenesis of M. pneumoniae infection. The pathogenesis of related respiratory symptoms caused by M. pneumoniae is mainly adhesion damage, direct damage including nutrient predation, invasion and toxin, cytokine induced inflammation damage and immune evasion effect. The pathogenesis of extrapulmonary manifestations includes direct damage mediated by invasion and inflammatory factors, indirect damage caused by host immune response, and vascular occlusion. The intrapulmonary and extrapulmonary pathogenic mechanisms of M. pneumoniae infection are independent and interrelated, and have certain commonalities. In fact, the pathogenic mechanisms of M. pneumoniae are complicated, and the specific content is still not completely clear, further researches are necessary for determining the detailed pathogenesis of M. pneumoniae. This review can provide certain guidance for the effective prevention and treatment of M. pneumoniae infection.
Topics: Humans; Mycoplasma pneumoniae; Cell Wall; Cytokines; Inflammation; Kidney
PubMed: 36459213
DOI: 10.1007/s00284-022-03103-0 -
Microbiology (Reading, England) Jan 2020is a fastidious organism of the class the smallest prokaryote capable of independent replication. First isolated in 1981, much is still unknown regarding its natural... (Review)
Review
is a fastidious organism of the class the smallest prokaryote capable of independent replication. First isolated in 1981, much is still unknown regarding its natural history in untreated infection. It is recognized as a sexually transmitted pathogen causing acute and chronic non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU) in men, with a growing body of evidence to suggest it also causes cervicitis and pelvic inflammatory disease in women. Its role in several other clinical syndromes is uncertain. The majority of people infected remain asymptomatic and clear infection without developing disease; asymptomatic screening is therefore not recommended. Prevalence rates are higher in patients attending sexual health clinics and in men with NGU. Limited availability of diagnostics has encouraged syndromic management, resulting in widespread antimicrobial resistance and given that few antimicrobial classes have activity against , there is significant concern regarding the emergence of untreatable strains. There is a need for wider availability of testing, which should include detection of macrolide resistance mediating mutations. Expertise in interpretation of microbiological results with clinical correlation ensures targeted treatment avoiding unnecessary antibiotic exposure. Public health surveillance nationally and internationally is vital in monitoring and responding to changing epidemiology trends. In this review, we summarize current knowledge of , including epidemiology, clinical and microbiological data, and discuss treatment challenges in the era of rising multidrug resistance.
Topics: Anti-Bacterial Agents; Drug Resistance, Bacterial; Humans; Mycoplasma Infections; Mycoplasma genitalium; Prevalence; Public Health Surveillance; Risk Factors; Sexually Transmitted Diseases, Bacterial; Urethritis
PubMed: 31329090
DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000830 -
Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology 2015Ureaplasma species are the most prevalent genital Mycoplasma isolated from the urogenital tract of both men and women. Ureaplasma has 14 known serotypes and is divided... (Review)
Review
Ureaplasma species are the most prevalent genital Mycoplasma isolated from the urogenital tract of both men and women. Ureaplasma has 14 known serotypes and is divided into two biovars- Ureaplasma parvum and Ureaplasma urealyticum. The organism has several genes coding for surface proteins, the most important being the gene encoding the Multiple Banded Antigen (MBA). The C-terminal domain of MBA is antigenic and elicits a host antibody response. Other virulence factors include phospholipases A and C, IgA protease and urease. Besides genital tract infections and infertility, Ureaplasma is also associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes and diseases in the newborn (chronic lung disease and retinopathy of prematurity). Infection produces cytokines in the amniotic fluid which initiates preterm labour. They have also been reported from renal stone and suppurative arthritis. Genital infections have also been reported with an increasing frequency in HIV-infected patients. Ureaplasma may be a candidate 'co factor' in the pathogenesis of AIDS. Culture and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are the mainstay of diagnosis. Commercial assays are available with improved turnaround time. Micro broth dilution is routinely used to test antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates. The organisms are tested against azithromycin, josamycin, ofloxacin and doxycycline. Resistance to macrolides, tetracyclines and fluoroquinolones have been reported. The susceptibility pattern also varies among the biovars with biovar 2 maintaining higher sensitivity rates. Prompt diagnosis and initiation of appropriate antibiotic therapy is essential to prevent long term complications of Ureaplasma infections. After surveying PubMed literature using the terms 'Ureaplasma', 'Ureaplasma urealyticum' and 'Ureaplasma parvum', relevant literature were selected to provide a concise review on the recent developments.
Topics: Antibodies, Bacterial; Antigens, Bacterial; Drug Resistance, Bacterial; Humans; Microbial Sensitivity Tests; Molecular Diagnostic Techniques; Polymerase Chain Reaction; Ureaplasma; Ureaplasma Infections; Ureaplasma urealyticum; Virulence Factors
PubMed: 25865969
DOI: 10.4103/0255-0857.154850 -
Nihon Saikingaku Zasshi. Japanese... 2015Mycoplasmas are smallest organisms capable of self-replication and cause various diseases in human. Especially, Mycoplasma pneumoniae is known as an etiological agent of... (Review)
Review
Mycoplasmas are smallest organisms capable of self-replication and cause various diseases in human. Especially, Mycoplasma pneumoniae is known as an etiological agent of pneumonia. From 2010 to 2012, epidemics of M. pneumoniae infections were reported worldwide (e.g., in France, Israel, and Japan). In the diseases caused by mycoplasmas, strong inflammatory responses induced by mycoplasmas have been thought to be important. However, mycoplasmas lack of cell wall and do not possess inflammation-inducing endotoxin such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS). We purified inflammation-inducing factors from pathogenic mycoplasmas and identified that they were lipoproteins. Lipoproteins derived from mycoplasmas induced inflammatory responses through Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2. In addition, we demonstrated that cytadherent property of M. pneumoniae played an important role in induction of inflammatory responses. Cytadherent property of M. pneumoniae induced inflammatory responses through TLR2 independent pathway. TLR4, inflammasomes, and autophagy were involved in this TLR2 independent induction of inflammatory responses.
Topics: Autophagy; Bacterial Adhesion; Bacterial Translocation; Humans; Inflammasomes; Lipoproteins; Mycoplasma; Mycoplasma pneumoniae; Pneumonia, Mycoplasma; Toll-Like Receptor 2; Toll-Like Receptor 4
PubMed: 26632216
DOI: 10.3412/jsb.70.369 -
The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal Nov 2018
Review
Topics: Child; Clinical Laboratory Techniques; Community-Acquired Infections; Humans; Mycoplasma pneumoniae; Pneumonia, Mycoplasma; Polymerase Chain Reaction; Radiography
PubMed: 30169485
DOI: 10.1097/INF.0000000000002171 -
Frontiers in Cellular and Infection... 2023, as one of the most common pathogens, usually causes upper respiratory tract infections and pneumonia in humans and animals. It accounts for 10% to 40% of... (Review)
Review
, as one of the most common pathogens, usually causes upper respiratory tract infections and pneumonia in humans and animals. It accounts for 10% to 40% of community-acquired pneumonia in children. The alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) are the first barrier against pathogen infections, triggering innate immune responses by recruiting and activating immune cells when pathogens invade into the lung. Alveolar macrophages (AMs) are the most plentiful innate immune cells in the lung, and are the first to initiate immune responses with pathogens invasion. The cross-talk between the alveolar epithelium and macrophages is necessary to maintain physiological homeostasis and to eradicate invaded pathogen by regulating immune responses during infections. This review summarizes the communications between alveolar macrophages and epithelial cells during infections, including cytokines-medicated communications, signal transduction by extracellular vesicles, surfactant associated proteins-medicated signal transmission and establishment of intercellular gap junction channels.
Topics: Child; Animals; Humans; Pneumonia, Mycoplasma; Macrophages, Alveolar; Mycoplasma pneumoniae; Lung; Epithelial Cells
PubMed: 37113130
DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1052020 -
The Indian Journal of Medical Research Jan 2018Lower respiratory tract infections are considered a common cause responsible for morbidity and mortality among children, and Mycoplasma pneumoniae is identified to be... (Review)
Review
Lower respiratory tract infections are considered a common cause responsible for morbidity and mortality among children, and Mycoplasma pneumoniae is identified to be responsible for up to 40 per cent of community-acquired pneumonia in children greater than five years of age. Extrapulmonary manifestations have been reported either due to spread of infection or autoimmune mechanisms. Infection by M. pneumoniae has high incidence and clinical importance but is still an underrated disease. Most widely used serologic methods are enzyme immunoassays for detection of immunoglobulin M (IgM), IgG and IgA antibodies to M. pneumoniae, though other methods such as particle agglutination assays and immunofluorescence methods are also used. Detection of M. pneumoniae by nucleic acid amplification techniques provides fast, sensitive and specific results. Utilization of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has improved the diagnosis of M. pneumoniae infections. Besides PCR, other alternative amplification techniques include (i) nucleic acid sequence-based amplification, (ii) Qβ replicase amplification, (iii) strand displacement amplification, (iv) transcription-mediated amplification, and (v) ligase chain reaction. Macrolides are used as the first-line treatment in childhood for M. pneumoniae infections; however, emergence of macrolide-resistant M. pneumoniae is a cause of concern. Development of a safe vaccine is important that gives protective immunity and would be a major step in reducing M. pneumoniae infections.
Topics: Adolescent; Anti-Bacterial Agents; Child; Child, Preschool; Community-Acquired Infections; Female; Humans; Immunoglobulin M; Infant; Male; Mycoplasma pneumoniae; Respiratory Tract Infections
PubMed: 29749357
DOI: 10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_1582_16 -
Revista Espanola de Quimioterapia :... Jun 2021Within Mycoplasma genus, M. pneumoniae, M. genitalium, M. hominis or U. urealyticum are the main species that have been traditionally linked to infectious processes.... (Review)
Review
Within Mycoplasma genus, M. pneumoniae, M. genitalium, M. hominis or U. urealyticum are the main species that have been traditionally linked to infectious processes. However, there are many other species involved in these conditions and that are, frequently, unfamiliar to healthcare professionals. The aim of this review is to identify all Mycoplasma genus species that have been isolated in human beings and to determine their involvement in infectious pathology.
Topics: Humans; Mycoplasma; Mycoplasma Infections; Mycoplasma genitalium; Mycoplasma hominis; Ureaplasma Infections; Ureaplasma urealyticum
PubMed: 33735544
DOI: 10.37201/req/014.2021 -
Nature Aug 2023Possessing only essential genes, a minimal cell can reveal mechanisms and processes that are critical for the persistence and stability of life. Here we report on how an... (Comparative Study)
Comparative Study
Possessing only essential genes, a minimal cell can reveal mechanisms and processes that are critical for the persistence and stability of life. Here we report on how an engineered minimal cell contends with the forces of evolution compared with the Mycoplasma mycoides non-minimal cell from which it was synthetically derived. Mutation rates were the highest among all reported bacteria, but were not affected by genome minimization. Genome streamlining was costly, leading to a decrease in fitness of greater than 50%, but this deficit was regained during 2,000 generations of evolution. Despite selection acting on distinct genetic targets, increases in the maximum growth rate of the synthetic cells were comparable. Moreover, when performance was assessed by relative fitness, the minimal cell evolved 39% faster than the non-minimal cell. The only apparent constraint involved the evolution of cell size. The size of the non-minimal cell increased by 80%, whereas the minimal cell remained the same. This pattern reflected epistatic effects of mutations in ftsZ, which encodes a tubulin-homologue protein that regulates cell division and morphology. Our findings demonstrate that natural selection can rapidly increase the fitness of one of the simplest autonomously growing organisms. Understanding how species with small genomes overcome evolutionary challenges provides critical insights into the persistence of host-associated endosymbionts, the stability of streamlined chassis for biotechnology and the targeted refinement of synthetically engineered cells.
Topics: Biotechnology; Cell Division; Evolution, Molecular; Genome, Bacterial; Mutation; Mycoplasma mycoides; Genes, Essential; Synthetic Biology; Cell Size; Epistasis, Genetic; Selection, Genetic; Genetic Fitness; Symbiosis; Tubulin
PubMed: 37407813
DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06288-x -
Nature Oct 2022Translation is the fundamental process of protein synthesis and is catalysed by the ribosome in all living cells. Here we use advances in cryo-electron tomography and...
Translation is the fundamental process of protein synthesis and is catalysed by the ribosome in all living cells. Here we use advances in cryo-electron tomography and sub-tomogram analysis to visualize the structural dynamics of translation inside the bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae. To interpret the functional states in detail, we first obtain a high-resolution in-cell average map of all translating ribosomes and build an atomic model for the M. pneumoniae ribosome that reveals distinct extensions of ribosomal proteins. Classification then resolves 13 ribosome states that differ in their conformation and composition. These recapitulate major states that were previously resolved in vitro, and reflect intermediates during active translation. On the basis of these states, we animate translation elongation inside native cells and show how antibiotics reshape the cellular translation landscapes. During translation elongation, ribosomes often assemble in defined three-dimensional arrangements to form polysomes. By mapping the intracellular organization of translating ribosomes, we show that their association into polysomes involves a local coordination mechanism that is mediated by the ribosomal protein L9. We propose that an extended conformation of L9 within polysomes mitigates collisions to facilitate translation fidelity. Our work thus demonstrates the feasibility of visualizing molecular processes at atomic detail inside cells.
Topics: Anti-Bacterial Agents; Cryoelectron Microscopy; Mycoplasma pneumoniae; Peptide Chain Elongation, Translational; Polyribosomes; Protein Biosynthesis; Ribosomal Proteins; Ribosomes
PubMed: 36171285
DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-05255-2