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Acta Cytologica 2017Cytodiagnoses of specific malignancies are enabled through analyses of abnormal nuclear chromatin and cytoplasmic features in stained cells. (Review)
Review
OBJECTIVE
Cytodiagnoses of specific malignancies are enabled through analyses of abnormal nuclear chromatin and cytoplasmic features in stained cells.
AIM
The objective of this work was to explore the inception, development, and chemistry of the Pap stain method introduced in 1942 by Dr. G.N. Papanicolaou.
STUDY DESIGN
To achieve this, we carried out a review of the English literature.
RESULTS
Between 1914 and 1933, Papanicolaou first analyzed vaginal squamous cells in guinea pigs and later in human vaginal fluid samples using hematoxylin and eosin with limited color reactions, correlating the cell-type morphology with endocrinology and histology. The 5-dye Pap stain method evolved through 2 salient phases. The first, between 1933 and 1942, saw the introduction of alcohol-ether fixation and aqueous waterblue staining to enhance cellular transparency, aiding the distinction of cervical cancer cells from benign cells, with quantitative and qualitative assessment of squamous cell maturity. The second phase, between 1942 and 1960, saw the introduction and refinement of various alcoholic cytoplasmic counterstaining schemes with orange G and EA (light green, Bismarck brown, eosin) and phosphotungstic acid, allowing wider ranges of polychromasia and further enhancing cellular visualization, facilitating the distinction of cell types and improving diagnostic confidence.
CONCLUSIONS
Development of the Pap stain method followed specific historical and scientific events. The staining method evolved following incremental improvements in cellular transparency achieved through tailored cellular fixation and cytoplasmic staining using variable dye and pH combinations.
Topics: Animals; Coloring Agents; Cytoplasm; Female; Humans; Papanicolaou Test; Staining and Labeling; Uterine Cervical Neoplasms; Vaginal Smears
PubMed: 28384641
DOI: 10.1159/000457827 -
The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine Jun 2016Women comprise nearly one-quarter of all people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in the U.S. and 20 percent of incident annual cases. Though women overall... (Review)
Review
Women comprise nearly one-quarter of all people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in the U.S. and 20 percent of incident annual cases. Though women overall are more likely than men to be diagnosed with HIV and engage in care, they are as unlikely to successfully achieve viral suppression with antiretroviral therapy, suggesting gender-based disparities that should be addressed by gender-responsive policies and programs. Using the socioecological model of health and syndemics theory, we comprehensively reviewed published literature to evaluate reasons for and ways to address gender differences in HIV risk and treatment. We discuss the biologic, sociocultural, interpersonal, and behavioral contexts of HIV risk that affect women, comprehensive healthcare for women with HIV that includes pregnancy planning or prevention, and policy implications.
Topics: Female; HIV Infections; Humans; Papanicolaou Test; Women's Health
PubMed: 27354845
DOI: No ID Found -
Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health Aug 2021African immigrant (AI) women remain burdened by cervical cancer, but the prevalence and correlates of Pap testing remains unclear in this population. (Review)
Review
BACKGROUND
African immigrant (AI) women remain burdened by cervical cancer, but the prevalence and correlates of Pap testing remains unclear in this population.
OBJECTIVE
To review studies on the prevalence and determinants of Pap testing among AI women living in developed countries.
METHODS
PubMed, CINAHL, Embase, and Scopus were searched for relevant articles that included African-born immigrant participants; were published in English; addressed the prevalence of Pap testing; conducted in a developed country; and identified correlates of Pap testing behavior. The Andersen Behavioral Model guided synthesis of the key findings.
RESULTS
Sixteen studies met the inclusion criteria. The prevalence of Pap testing ranged from 4.6% to 73.0%. Having a female provider and access to primary care facilitated Pap testing. Barriers to Pap testing included low income, male healthcare providers, and no history of gynecological exam.
CONCLUSIONS
Healthcare providers and social determinants-particularly income and healthcare access, play an important role in improving Pap testing among AI women. Larger qualitative and mixed methods studies are needed to explore other important determinants of Pap testing such as disease knowledge, self-efficacy, health literacy to reduce the burden of cervical cancer among AI women.
Topics: Developed Countries; Early Detection of Cancer; Emigrants and Immigrants; Female; Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice; Humans; Male; Papanicolaou Test; Uterine Cervical Neoplasms; Vaginal Smears
PubMed: 33165711
DOI: 10.1007/s10903-020-01119-x -
Journal of Women's Health (2002) Feb 2019In 2012, updated cervical cancer screening recommendations were released with consensus on Papanicolaou (Pap) testing every 3 years for women age 21-65 years or...
BACKGROUND
In 2012, updated cervical cancer screening recommendations were released with consensus on Papanicolaou (Pap) testing every 3 years for women age 21-65 years or Pap-human papillomavirus (HPV) cotesting at 5-year intervals for women age 30-65 years. Primary study aims: Assess current use of Pap-HPV cotesting and describe local population trends over time in Pap and Pap-HPV cotesting. Secondary aim: Assess sociodemographic factors correlating with screening.
METHODS
We assessed Rochester Epidemiology Project data for Pap and Pap-HPV cotesting among women age 16 years and older living in Olmsted County, Minnesota, yearly from 2005 (study population n = 47,203) through 2016 (study population n = 49,510). We calculated 3-year (Pap) and 5-year (Pap-HPV) moving prevalence rates of screening as proportion of eligible population. Multivariable logistic regression was used to assess factors potentially associated with screening.
RESULTS
In 2016, 64.6% of 27,418 eligible 30- to 65-year-old women were up to date with cervical cancer screening; 60.8% had received Pap-HPV cotest screening. Significant declines in Pap completion rates over time were observed in all age groups, including an unexpected decline in 21- to 29-year-old women. Coincident with decreasing Pap screening rates, Pap-HPV cotesting significantly increased among women age 30-65 years, from 10.0% in 2007 to 60.8% in 2016.
CONCLUSIONS
This suggests increasing adoption of 2012 screening recommendations in the 30- to 65-year-old population. However, decline in Pap screening among 21- to 29-year-old women is concerning. Disparities by race, ethnicity, smoking status, and comorbidity level were observed. Results suggest need for multilevel patient and clinician interventions to increase cervical cancer screening adherence.
Topics: Adolescent; Adult; Aged; Early Detection of Cancer; Female; Humans; Mass Screening; Middle Aged; Minnesota; Papanicolaou Test; Papillomaviridae; Papillomavirus Infections; Socioeconomic Factors; Uterine Cervical Neoplasms; Young Adult
PubMed: 30614380
DOI: 10.1089/jwh.2018.7380 -
American Family Physician Feb 2019
Review
Topics: Adult; Aged; Early Detection of Cancer; Female; Humans; Mass Screening; Middle Aged; Papanicolaou Test; Papillomaviridae; Papillomavirus Infections; Practice Guidelines as Topic; Uterine Cervical Neoplasms
PubMed: 30763054
DOI: No ID Found -
Ciencia & Saude Coletiva Sep 2019This paper reviews the limiting factors and facilitators of access to Brazilian cervical cancer care public health services. This review employed bibliographic database... (Review)
Review
This paper reviews the limiting factors and facilitators of access to Brazilian cervical cancer care public health services. This review employed bibliographic database Medline (interface with the Virtual Health Library/BVS and PubMed) and Lilacs / SciELO portals. We sought publications for the period 2011-2016 based on the use of specific terms from the sources consulted, regarding "cervical neoplasms" and "access to health services". We found 704 papers initially, which were shortlisted to 31 following adopted criteria, which were further reduced to 19 papers to make up the final selection. Access facilitating aspects such as wide coverage of the Pap smear test and coverage of biopsies equivalent to the number of altered prevention tests were mentioned. However, access limiting aspects such as inadequate Pap smear's periodicity, difficulties in scheduling appointments and exams, high rate of advanced staging and delays in diagnosis and treatment onset were also reported.
Topics: Biopsy; Brazil; Early Detection of Cancer; Female; Health Services Accessibility; Humans; Papanicolaou Test; Uterine Cervical Neoplasms; Vaginal Smears
PubMed: 31508761
DOI: 10.1590/1413-81232018249.32592017 -
Revista Brasileira de Epidemiologia =... 2016In Brazil, in 2012, 6.4% of the prison population was made up of women. The aim of the study was to verify the coverage of the Pap smear according to sociodemographic...
In Brazil, in 2012, 6.4% of the prison population was made up of women. The aim of the study was to verify the coverage of the Pap smear according to sociodemographic characteristics and health problems reported among incarcerated women. Cross-sectional study conducted from August 2012 to July 2013, considering the records of 702 inmates aged between 25 and 64 years and the duration of imprisonment (not less than 12 months). The average age of the women surveyed was 34.7 years. The performance of cervical cytology was reported by 26.3% of inmates. There were no difference in prevalence according to selected variables. The containment condition enables the implementation of preventive measures such as offering and realization of Pap smear for most inmates. The observed results are worrying and differ significantly from those presented in the national diagnosis on the health of incarcerated women.
Topics: Adult; Brazil; Cross-Sectional Studies; Female; Humans; Middle Aged; Papanicolaou Test; Prisoners
PubMed: 27849280
DOI: 10.1590/1980-5497201600030017 -
BMC Women's Health Apr 2022Cervical cancer is one of the leading malignancies globally and has taken third place in Namibia amongst women aged 15-44 years. Infection with the Human...
BACKGROUND
Cervical cancer is one of the leading malignancies globally and has taken third place in Namibia amongst women aged 15-44 years. Infection with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) has been proven to increase women's susceptibility to developing cervical carcinoma. Sadly, Namibia carries a twin burden of HIV and cervical cancer. Namibians are aware of HIV/AIDS, but remain poorly informed about cervical cancer. Furthermore, among those who are aware of the disease, low utilisation of screening tests have been reported.
OBJECTIVE
The purpose was to explore perceptions and attitudes held by women about cervical cancer, reasons for low uptake of Pap smear testing amongst those who are aware of the malignancy as well as unearth motivation factors that has fuelled women to go for screening.
METHODOLOGY
A descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted using convenience sampling as a sampling technique. The survey instrument used was a self-administered questionnaire. It consisted of both closed and open ended questions. A total of 136 women were surveyed.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
The level of awareness for cervical cancer (92.6%) and Pap smear (93.4%) were high. Most were able to identify that Pap smear test is used for screening for pre-cancerous lesions. However, knowledge about the impact of a HIV positive status along with co infection with HPV as the leading causes for progression of invasive cervical carcinoma was not well known. Knowledge about the other risk factors such as multiple sexual partners (39.7%), early sex debut (34.9%) and smoking was poorly demonstrated. This suggests that a high awareness level does not necessarily translate into having a good perception or understanding of a disease. A good attitude towards screening was observed although less than half of the study population reported ever having a test done.
Topics: Cross-Sectional Studies; Early Detection of Cancer; Female; HIV Infections; Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice; Humans; Male; Mass Screening; Namibia; Papanicolaou Test; Surveys and Questionnaires; Uterine Cervical Neoplasms; Vaginal Smears
PubMed: 35449007
DOI: 10.1186/s12905-022-01698-x -
The Indian Journal of Medical Research Dec 2018Cervical carcinoma is one of the most common and dreaded diseases of women, and in India, it accounts for 16 per cent of total cervical cancer cases occurring globally.... (Review)
Review
Cervical carcinoma is one of the most common and dreaded diseases of women, and in India, it accounts for 16 per cent of total cervical cancer cases occurring globally. The situation is more alarming in the rural areas where the majority of women are illiterate and ignorant about the hazards of cervical cancer. Different screening strategies such as rural cancer registries and camp approach for cancer detection have been found useful in minimizing the problem of cervical cancer in the villages. Various screening techniques such as visual inspection with acetic acid, visual inspection with Lugol's iodine, visual inspection with magnification devices-magnavisualizer, Pap smear and HPV-DNA testing have been suggested and tried under low-resource settings of our country, and cervical cytology screening has been found effective in reducing incidence of the disease. In the present review, feasibility of different screening methods has been assessed to find out the most suitable mode applicable at the rural level. Single lifetime screening particularly of high-risk women along with analysis of cost-effective tumour markers such as Argyrophilic nucleolar organizer regions (AgNOR) counts to discriminate high-risk dysplasia cases appears to be an appropriate approach in fighting against cervical cancer.
Topics: Antigens, Nuclear; Biomarkers, Tumor; Coloring Agents; DNA, Viral; Early Detection of Cancer; Female; Gynecological Examination; Humans; India; Iodides; Papanicolaou Test; Papillomaviridae; Rural Health Services; Uterine Cervical Neoplasms; Vaginal Smears
PubMed: 30778002
DOI: 10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_5_17 -
Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer... Oct 2022Although various improvements have been made in the reporting of the Papanicolaou (PAP) test in recent years, there remain several challenges that have yet to be...
BACKGROUND
Although various improvements have been made in the reporting of the Papanicolaou (PAP) test in recent years, there remain several challenges that have yet to be addressed in terms of determining a standardized methodology for categorizing atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC US).
METHODS
The present study focuses on evaluating the performance of the methylation status of two genes (CGB3 and NOP56) using a total of 200 PAP samples, which were divided into the "determined" group, with 78 samples based on cytology, and the "undetermined" group (ASC US), with 122 samples. The promoter methylation status of the CGB3 and NOP56 genes was detected for the 200 PAP samples using methylation specific PCR (MSP). The diagnostic abilities of the CGB3 and NOP56 genes in PAP samples were measured, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were generated using Python programming language.
RESULTS
Based on the validation of CGB3 and NOP56 methylation in the 200 PAP samples, both genes exhibited higher methylation percentages in abnormal samples compared with normal samples. In addition, on the basis of diagnostic performance analysis, the CGB3 gene exhibited the highest sensitivity and specificity in both histology based ASC US and cytology based 'determined' PAP samples, with significant diagnostic abilities [area under the curve (AUC) values of 0.83 and 0.74, respectively, where AUC ≥0.5 was determined to be significant] to distinguish between the "normal" and "abnormal" samples.
CONCLUSION
The findings of the present study will contribute toward identifying a DNA methylation marker for the early detection of abnormal samples before they reach the initial stages of cervical cancer, and should prove to be helpful for clinicians in terms of diagnosing patients whose cells are ASC US.
.Topics: Female; Humans; Papanicolaou Test; Atypical Squamous Cells of the Cervix; Vaginal Smears; Uterine Cervical Neoplasms; DNA Methylation; Papillomavirus Infections; Uterine Cervical Dysplasia
PubMed: 36308381
DOI: 10.31557/APJCP.2022.23.10.3541