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Science Progress Sep 2018A review is presented of the manufacture and use of different types of plastic, and the effects of pollution by these materials on animal, human and environmental... (Review)
Review
A review is presented of the manufacture and use of different types of plastic, and the effects of pollution by these materials on animal, human and environmental health, insofar as this is known. Since 2004, the world has made as much plastic as it did in the previous half century, and it has been reckoned that the total mass of virgin plastics ever made amounts to 8.3 billion tonnes, mainly derived from natural gas and crude oil, used as chemical feedstocks and fuel sources. Between 1950 and 2015, a total of 6.3 billion tonnes of primary and secondary (recycled) plastic waste was generated, of which around 9% has been recycled, and 12% incinerated, with the remaining 79% either being stored in landfills or having been released directly into the natural environment. In 2015, 407 million tonnes (Mt) of plastic was produced, of which 164 Mt was consumed by packaging (36% of the total). Although quoted values vary, packaging probably accounts for around one third of all plastics used, of which approximately 40% goes to landfill, while 32% escapes the collection system. It has been deduced that around 9 Mt of plastic entered the oceans in 2010, as a result of mismanaged waste, along with up to 0.5 Mt each of microplastics from washing synthetic textiles, and from the abrasion of tyres on road surfaces. However, the amount of plastics actually measured in the oceans represents less than 1% of the (at least) 150 Mt reckoned to have been released into the oceans over time. Plastic accounts for around 10% by mass of municipal waste, but up to 85% of marine debris items - most of which arrive from land-based sources. Geographically, the five heaviest plastic polluters are P. R. China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam and Sri Lanka, which between them contribute 56% of global plastic waste. Larger, primary plastic items can undergo progressive fragmentation to yield a greater number of increasingly smaller 'secondary' microplastic particles, thus increasing the overall surface area of the plastic material, which enhances its ability to absorb, and concentrate, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), with the potential to transfer them to the tissues of animals that ingest the microplastic particles, particularly in marine environments. Although fears that such microparticles and their toxins may be passed food webs to humans are not as yet substantiated, the direct ingestion of microplastics by humans drinking water is a distinct possibility - since 92% of samples taken in the USA and 72% in Europe showed their presence - although any consequent health effects are as yet unclear. Foodstuffs may also become contaminated by microplastics from the air, although any consequent health effects are also unknown. In regard to such airborne sources, it is noteworthy that small plastic particles have been found in human lung tissue, which might prove an adverse health issue under given circumstances. It is also very striking that microplastics have been detected in mountain soils in Switzerland, which are most likely windborne in origin. Arctic ice core samples too have revealed the presence of microplastics, which were most likely carried on ocean currents from the Pacific garbage patch, and from local pollution from shipping and fishing. Thus, sea ice traps large amounts of microplastics and transports them across the Arctic Ocean, but these particles will be released into the global environment when the ice melts, particularly under the influence of a rising mean global temperature. While there is a growing emphasis toward the substitution of petrochemically derived plastics by bioplastics, controversy has arisen in regard to how biodegradable the latter actually are in the open environment, and they presently only account for 0.5% of the total mass of plastics manufactured globally. Since the majority of bioplastics are made from sugar and starch materials, to expand their use significantly raises the prospect of competition between growing crops to supply food or plastics, similarly to the diversion of food crops for the manufacture of primary biofuels. The use of oxo-plastics, which contain additives that assist the material to degrade, is also a matter of concern, since it is claimed that they merely fragment and add to the environmental burden of microplastics; hence, the European Union has moved to restrict their use. Since 6% of the current global oil (including natural gas liquids, NGLs) production is used to manufacture plastic commodities - predicted to rise to 20% by 2050 - the current approaches for the manufacture and use of plastics (including their end-use) demand immediate revision. More extensive collection and recycling of plastic items at the end of their life, for re-use in new production, to offset the use of virgin plastic, is a critical aspect both for reducing the amount of plastic waste entering the environment, and in improving the efficiency of fossil resource use. This is central to the ideology underpinning the circular economy, which has common elements with permaculture, the latter being a regenerative design system based on 'nature as teacher', which could help optimise the use of resources in town and city environments, while minimising and repurposing 'waste'. Thus, food might be produced more on the local than the global scale, with smaller inputs of fuels (including transportation fuels for importing and distributing food), water and fertilisers, and with a marked reduction in the use of plastic packaging. Such an approach, adopted by billions of individuals, could prove of immense significance in ensuring future food security, and in reducing waste and pollution - of all kinds.
Topics: Animals; Environmental Pollutants; Environmental Pollution; Humans; Plastics
PubMed: 30025551
DOI: 10.3184/003685018X15294876706211 -
BioMed Research International 2018Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) is extensively used as a plasticizer in many products, especially medical devices, furniture materials, cosmetics, and personal care... (Review)
Review
Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) is extensively used as a plasticizer in many products, especially medical devices, furniture materials, cosmetics, and personal care products. DEHP is noncovalently bound to plastics, and therefore, it will leach out of these products after repeated use, heating, and/or cleaning of the products. Due to the overuse of DEHP in many products, it enters and pollutes the environment through release from industrial settings and plastic waste disposal sites. DEHP can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact on a daily basis, which has raised some concerns about its safety and its potential effects on human health. The main aim of this review is to give an overview of the endocrine, testicular, ovarian, neural, hepatotoxic, and cardiotoxic effects of DEHP on animal models and humans and .
Topics: Animals; Diethylhexyl Phthalate; Environmental Exposure; Humans; Plasticizers; Plastics
PubMed: 29682520
DOI: 10.1155/2018/1750368 -
International Journal of Environmental... Sep 2020The production of plastic products, which requires phthalate plasticizers, has resulted in the problems for human health, especially that of reproductive health.... (Review)
Review
The production of plastic products, which requires phthalate plasticizers, has resulted in the problems for human health, especially that of reproductive health. Phthalate exposure can induce reproductive disorders at various regulatory levels. The aim of this review was to compile the evidence concerning the association between phthalates and reproductive diseases, phthalates-induced reproductive disorders, and their possible endocrine and intracellular mechanisms. Phthalates may induce alterations in puberty, the development of testicular dysgenesis syndrome, cancer, and fertility disorders in both males and females. At the hormonal level, phthalates can modify the release of hypothalamic, pituitary, and peripheral hormones. At the intracellular level, phthalates can interfere with nuclear receptors, membrane receptors, intracellular signaling pathways, and modulate gene expression associated with reproduction. To understand and to treat the adverse effects of phthalates on human health, it is essential to expand the current knowledge concerning their mechanism of action in the organism.
Topics: Environmental Pollutants; Female; Humans; Male; Phthalic Acids; Plasticizers; Reproductive Health
PubMed: 32961939
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17186811 -
Environment International Jan 2022In this review of reviews, we overview the current global body of available evidence from structured reviews of epidemiological studies that explore human health... (Review)
Review
In this review of reviews, we overview the current global body of available evidence from structured reviews of epidemiological studies that explore human health outcomes associated with exposure to phthalates (chemical plasticisers commonly found in plastics). We found robust evidence for an association with lower semen quality, neurodevelopment and risk of childhood asthma, and moderate to robust evidence for impact on anogenital distance in boys. We identified moderate evidence for an association between phthalates/metabolites and low birthweight, endometriosis, decreased testosterone, ADHD, Type 2 diabetes and breast/uterine cancer. There was some evidence for other outcomes including anofourchette distance, fetal sex hormones, pre-term birth, lower antral follicle count, reduced oestrodiol, autism, obesity, thyroid function and hearing disorders. We found no reviews of epidemiological human studies on the impact of phthalates from recycled plastics on human health. We recommend that future research should use urine samples as exposure measures, consider confounders in analyses and measure impacts on female reproductive systems. Our findings align with emerging research indicating that health risks can occur at exposure levels below the "safe dose" levels set out by regulators, and are of particular concern given potential additive or synergistic "cocktail effects" of chemicals. This raises important policy and regulatory issues for identifying and controlling plastics and health related impacts and highlights a need for more research into substances of concern entering plastics waste streams via recycling.
Topics: Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2; Environmental Exposure; Female; Humans; Male; Phthalic Acids; Plasticizers; Semen Analysis
PubMed: 34601394
DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106903 -
Frontiers in Immunology 2022Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a heterogenous population of the innate immune system, enriched at mucosal surfaces and are pivotal regulators of immune homeostasis.... (Review)
Review
Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a heterogenous population of the innate immune system, enriched at mucosal surfaces and are pivotal regulators of immune homeostasis. ILCs are the innate counterpart of T cells. Like T cells, ILC subsets are highly plastic with their composition and function controlled by alterations in their microenvironment. This plasticity allows for the trans-differentiation between the subsets to rapidly respond to their immune environment. The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a heterogeneous milieu characterized by different cytokines and growth factors. Through interaction with the tumor microenvironment, ILCs can transdifferentiate into different subsets resulting in pro or anti-tumor immunity. Thus, studying ILC plasticity might result in new therapeutic approaches for cancer therapy. In this review, we summarize current findings of the functional and plastic heterogeneity of ILCs in homeostasis as well as disease settings with a specific focus on cancer. We specifically highlight tumor-driven plasticity and how ILC-induced inflammation can impact the tumor microenvironment and anti-tumor immunity.
Topics: Humans; Immunity, Innate; Lymphocytes; Neoplasms; Plastics; Tumor Microenvironment
PubMed: 35663967
DOI: 10.3389/fimmu-13-886520 -
Environment International Jan 2023Approximately 9 million metric tons of plastics enters the ocean annually, and once in the marine environment, plastic surfaces can be quickly colonised by marine... (Review)
Review
Approximately 9 million metric tons of plastics enters the ocean annually, and once in the marine environment, plastic surfaces can be quickly colonised by marine microorganisms, forming a biofilm. Studies on plastic debris-biofilm associations, known as plastisphere, have increased exponentially within the last few years. In this review, we first briefly summarise methods and techniques used in exploring plastic-microbe interactions. Then we highlight research gaps and provide future research opportunities for marine plastisphere studies, especially, on plastic characterisation and standardised biodegradation tests, the fate of "environmentally friendly" plastics, and plastisphere of coastal habitats. Located in the tropics, Southeast Asian (SEA) countries are significant contributors to marine plastic debris. However, plastisphere studies in this region are lacking and therefore, we discuss how the unique environmental conditions in the SEA seas may affect plastic-microbe interaction and why there is an imperative need to conduct plastisphere studies in SEA marine environments. Finally, we also highlight the lack of understanding of the pathogenicity and ecotoxicological effects of plastisphere on marine ecosystems.
Topics: Plastics; Ecosystem; Oceans and Seas; Research Design; Biodegradation, Environmental
PubMed: 36587499
DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107716 -
Environmental Toxicology and... Jun 2024Phthalate esters (PAEs) are widely used as plasticizers to enhance the flexibility and durability of different consumer products, including clothing. However, concerns... (Review)
Review
Phthalate esters (PAEs) are widely used as plasticizers to enhance the flexibility and durability of different consumer products, including clothing. However, concerns have been raised about the potential adverse health effects associated with the presence of phthalates in textiles, such as endocrine disruption, reproductive toxicity and potential carcinogenicity. Based on examination of more than 120 published articles, this paper presents a comprehensive review of studies concerning the phthalate content in clothing and other textile products, with special emphasis on those conducted in the last decade (2014-2023). The types and role of PAEs as plasticizers, the relevant legislation in different countries (emphasizing the importance of monitoring PAE levels in clothing to protect consumer health) and the analytical methods used for PAE determination are critically evaluated. The review also discusses the models used to evaluate exposure to PAEs and the associated health risks. Finally, the study limitations and challenges related to determining the phthalate contents of textile products are considered.
Topics: Phthalic Acids; Humans; Plasticizers; Clothing; Esters; Textiles; Animals
PubMed: 38677495
DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2024.104457 -
The Science of the Total Environment Nov 2021The contribution of improperly disposed plastic wastes is globally evaluated at the level of 30% and these wastes make a particular threat to all living creatures. Thus,... (Review)
Review
The contribution of improperly disposed plastic wastes is globally evaluated at the level of 30% and these wastes make a particular threat to all living creatures. Thus, the evaluation of the possible impacts of plastic particles on the biotic part of ecosystems has become increasingly important in recent years. As a result, the growing number of publications concerning this subject has been observed since 2018. This paper aims to review the advances in studies on the effect of petroleum-derived plastic and bioplastic particles, taken together in the term (bio)plastics, on the terrestrial ecosystem, particularly on soil biota. It is the first review, in which both petroleum-derived plastics and bioplastics were analysed regarding their potential impacts on the soil compartment. Petroleum-derived plastics were more frequently studied than bioplastics and among analysed papers about 18% concern bioplastics. It was found that (bio)plastics did not affect the germination of seeds. However, they might contribute to the delay in germination processes. Both inhibitory and stimulating effects were observed in relation to the growth of roots and stems. (Bio)plastic microparticles did not inhibit the biochemical activity of nitrifiers and transformation of carbon compounds. Earthworms were predominantly used organisms to test the effect of petroleum-derived plastics on soil biota but there are hardly any data about bioplastics. Petroleum-derived microplastics present in soil at concentrations up to 1000 mg kg usually neither cause to the mortality of earthworms nor affect their reproduction. Micro- and nanoparticles of petroleum-derived plastics could be accumulated in the earthworm intestine and transferred in the food chain. Summarizing, a high variability of results and often appearing lack of dose-dependence relationships hamper the final evaluation of the ecotoxicity of (bio)plastics simultaneously creating a need to develop the ecotoxicological studies on (bio)plastics, especially including these on the effect of bioplastics on soil animals.
Topics: Animals; Ecosystem; Microplastics; Plastics; Soil
PubMed: 34328943
DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148889 -
Environment International Jan 2021We present a list of Chemicals of Concern (CoCs) in plastic toys. We started from available studies reporting chemical composition of toys to group plastic materials, as...
We present a list of Chemicals of Concern (CoCs) in plastic toys. We started from available studies reporting chemical composition of toys to group plastic materials, as well as to gather mass fractions and function of chemicals in these materials. Chemical emissions from plastic toys and subsequent human exposures were then estimated using a series of models and a coupled near-field and far-field exposure assessment framework. Comparing human doses with reference doses shows high Hazard Quotients of up to 387 and cancer risk calculated using cancer slope factors of up to 0.0005. Plasticizers in soft plastic materials show the highest risk, with 31 out of the 126 chemicals identified as CoCs, with sum of Hazard Quotients >1 or child cancer risk >10. Our results indicate that a relevant amount of chemicals used in plastic toy materials may pose a non-negligible health risk to children, calling for more refined investigations and more human- and eco-friendly alternatives. The 126 chemicals identified as CoCs were compared with other existing regulatory prioritization lists. While some of our chemicals appear in other lists, we also identified additional priority chemicals that are not yet covered elsewhere and thus require further attention. We finally derive for all considered chemicals the maximum Acceptable Chemical Content (ACC) in the grouped toy plastic materials as powerful green chemistry tool to check whether chemical alternatives could create substantial risks.
Topics: Child; Environmental Exposure; Humans; Plasticizers; Plastics; Play and Playthings; Risk Assessment
PubMed: 33115697
DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106194 -
Nutricion Hospitalaria Feb 2018Phthalates are chemical compounds classified as endocrine disruptors which are present in practically every environment of daily life. In the field of artificial... (Review)
Review
Phthalates are chemical compounds classified as endocrine disruptors which are present in practically every environment of daily life. In the field of artificial nutrition, they are relevant because they are found as plasticizers in infusion lines made with PVC. They are lipophilic molecules which weakly pair with PVC and, therefore, they are easily extracted by the fatty compounds that are part of both the parenteral and enteral nutrition, as various studies show. As endocrine disruptors, they directly affect the reproductive organs because of their antiandrogenic and estrogenic effects. They promote inflammation and oxidative stress and they are also related to the development of obesity, asthma, neurological and ophthalmic disorders, cholestasis and other gastrointestinal disorders. The legislation establishes the highest recommended exposure level for daily exposure; however, in the medical environment the exposure follows a different pattern, more occasional with very high peaks, for which there are no established thresholds, that is why it is recommended to avoid exposure whenever possible. The industry is working on the development of alternative plasticizers, for which the use experience is still limited. Currently, in the field of artificial nutrition it is recommended to use phthalate-free intravenous and enteral infusion lines.
Topics: Endocrine Disruptors; Enteral Nutrition; Humans; Phthalic Acids; Plasticizers
PubMed: 29756983
DOI: 10.20960/nh.1833