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Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex... Jul 2020Civilization development is associated with the use of plastic. When plastic was introduced to the market, it was assumed that it was less toxic than glass. Recently, it... (Review)
Review
Civilization development is associated with the use of plastic. When plastic was introduced to the market, it was assumed that it was less toxic than glass. Recently, it is known that plastics are serious ecological problem they, do not degrade and remain in the environment for hundreds of years. Plastic may be degraded into micro-particles < 5000 nm in diameter, and further into nanoparticles (NPs) < 100 nm in diameter. NPs have been detected in air, soil, water and sludge. One of the most commonly used plastics is polystyrene (PS) - a product of polymerization of styrene monomers. It is used for the production of styrofoam and other products like toys, CDs and cup covers. In vivo and in vitro studies have suggested that polystyrene nanoparticles (PS-NPs) may penetrate organisms through several routes i.e. skin, respiratory and digestive tracts. They can be deposited in living organisms and accumulate further along the food chain. NPs are surrounded by "protein corona" that allows them penetrating cellular membranes and interacting with cellular structures. Depending on the cell type, NPs may be transported through pinocytosis, phagocytosis, or be transported passively. Currently there are no studies that would indicate a carcinogenic potential of PS-NPs. On the other hand, the PS monomer (styrene) was classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a potentially carcinogenic substance (carcinogenicity class B2). Despite of the widespread use of plastics and the presence of plastic NPs of secondary or primary nature, there are no studies that would assess the effect of those substances on human organism. This study was aimed at the review of the literature data concerning the formation of PS-NPs in the environment, their accumulation along the food chain, and their potential adverse effects on organisms on living various organization levels.
Topics: Food Chain; Humans; Nanoparticles; Plastics; Polystyrenes; Water Pollutants, Chemical
PubMed: 32155552
DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114297 -
Biosensors & Bioelectronics Jan 2021Tailoring conducting polymers (CPs) such as polyaniline (PANI) to deliver the appropriate morphology, electrochemical properties and processability is essential for the...
Tailoring conducting polymers (CPs) such as polyaniline (PANI) to deliver the appropriate morphology, electrochemical properties and processability is essential for the development of effective polymer-based electrochemical sensors and biosensors. Composite PANI electrodes for the detection of ammonium (NH) have been previously reported, but have been limited by their reliance on the electrocatalytic reaction between NH and a metal/nano-catalyst. We report an advanced processable and nanofibrous polyaniline:polystyrene-sulphonate (nano-PANI:PSS) as a functional ink for the fabrication of catalyst-free NH sensors and enzyme-coupled urea biosensors. The PSS provides both a soft-template for nanofibre formation and a poly-anionic charge compensator, enabling the detection of NH based on an intrinsic doping/de-doping mechanism. The nanostructured morphology, chemical characteristics and electrochemical properties of the nano-PANI:PSS were characterised. We fabricated 3D-hierarchical sensor interfaces composed of inter-connected nano-PANI:PSS fibres (diameter of ~50.3 ± 4.8 nm) for the detection of NH with a wide linear range of 0.1-11.5 mM (R = 0.996) and high sensitivity of 106 mA M cm. We further demonstrated the coupling of the enzyme urease with the nano-PANI:PSS to create a urea biosensor with an innovative biocatalytic product-to-dopant relay mechanism for the detection of urea, with a linear range of 0.2-0.9 mM (R = 0.971) and high sensitivity of 41 mA M cm. Moreover, the nano-PANI:PSS-based sensors show good selectivity for the detection of NHand urea in a urine model containing common interfering molecules. This processable and fibrous nano-PANI:PSS provides new advance on CP-based transducer materials in the emerging field of printed organic sensors and biosensors.
Topics: Ammonium Compounds; Aniline Compounds; Biosensing Techniques; Nanofibers; Polystyrenes; Urea
PubMed: 33113385
DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112725 -
Scientific Reports Jun 2021The proliferation of plastics in the environment continues at an alarming rate. Plastic particles have been found to be persistent and ubiquitous pollutants in a variety...
The proliferation of plastics in the environment continues at an alarming rate. Plastic particles have been found to be persistent and ubiquitous pollutants in a variety of environments, including sea water, fresh water, soil, and air. In light of this phenomenon, the scientific and medical communities have become increasingly wary of the dangers posed to human health by chronic exposure to microplastics (< 5 mm diameter) and nanoplastics (< 100 nm diameter). A critical component of the study of the health effects of these pollutants is the accurate determination of their pharmacokinetic behavior in vivo. Herein, we report the first use of molecular imaging to track polystyrene (PS) micro- and nanoplastic particles in mammals. To this end, we have modified PS particles of several sizes-diameters of 20 nm, 220 nm, 1 µm, and 6 µm-with the chelator desferrioxamine (DFO) and radiolabeled these DFO-bearing particles with the positron-emitting radiometal zirconium-89 (Zr; t ~ 3.3 d). Subsequently, positron emission tomography (PET) was used to visualize the biodistribution of these radioplastics in C57BL/6J mice at 6, 12, 24, and 48 h after ingestion. The imaging data reveal that the majority of the radioplastics remain in the gastrointestinal tract and are eliminated through the feces by 48 h post-ingestion, a result reinforced by acute biodistribution studies. Ultimately, this work suggests that nuclear imaging-and PET in particular-can be a sensitive and effective tool in the urgent and rapidly growing effort to study the in vivo behavior and potential toxicity of micro- and nanoplastics.
Topics: Animals; Female; Humans; Mice; Microplastics; Nanoparticles; Polystyrenes; Positron-Emission Tomography
PubMed: 34075133
DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-90929-6 -
International Journal of Molecular... Dec 2020The chloromethyl-functionalized polystyrene is the most commonly used ammonium cation precursor for making anion exchange resins (AER) and membranes (AEM). However, the...
The chloromethyl-functionalized polystyrene is the most commonly used ammonium cation precursor for making anion exchange resins (AER) and membranes (AEM). However, the chloromethylation of polystyrene or styrene involves highly toxic and carcinogenic raw materials (e.g., chloromethyl ether) and the resultant ammonium cation structural motif is not stable enough in alkaline media. Herein, we present a novel self-pored amine-functionalized polystyrene, which may provide a safe, convenient, and green process to make polystyrene-based AER and AEM. It is realized by hydrolysis of the copolymer obtained via random copolymerization of -vinylformamide (NVF) with styrene (St). The composition and structure of the NVF-St copolymer could be controlled by monomeric ratio, and the copolymers with high NVF content could form bicontinuous morphology at sub-100 nm levels. Such bicontinuous morphology allows the copolymers to be swollen in water and self-pored by freeze-drying, yielding a large specific surface area. Thus, the copolymer exhibits high adsorption capacity (226 mg/g for bisphenol A). Further, the amine-functionalized polystyrene has all-carbon backbone and hydrophilic/hydrophobic microphase separation morphology. It can be quaternized to produce ammonium cations and would be an excellent precursor for making AEM and AER with good alkaline stability and smooth ion transport channels. Therefore, the present strategy may open a new pathway to develop porous alkaline stable AER and AEM without using metal catalysts, organic pore-forming agents, and carcinogenic raw materials.
Topics: Amides; Anion Exchange Resins; Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Interactions; Nanostructures; Polymerization; Polystyrenes; Polyvinyls; Porosity
PubMed: 33321900
DOI: 10.3390/ijms21249404 -
Biosensors Jun 2021Aflatoxin B (AFB), a mycotoxin, is hepatotoxic, carcinogenic, and nephrotoxic in humans and animals, and contaminate a wide range of maize. In this study, an...
Aflatoxin B (AFB), a mycotoxin, is hepatotoxic, carcinogenic, and nephrotoxic in humans and animals, and contaminate a wide range of maize. In this study, an immunochromatographic assay (ICA) based on polystyrene microspheres (PMs) was developed for sensitive and quantitative detection of AFB in maize. The amounts of PMs, the condition for activating carboxyl groups of PMs, the amount of monoclonal antibody (mAb), and the volume of the immune probe were optimized to enhance the performance PMs-ICA for point-of-care testing of AFB in maize. The PMs-ICA showed the cut-off value of 1 ng/mL in phosphate buffer (PB) and 6 µg/kg in maize samples, respectively. The quantitative limit of detection (qLOD) was 0.27 and 1.43 µg/kg in PB and maize samples, respectively. The accuracy and precision of the PMs-ICA were evaluated by analysis of spiked maize samples with recoveries of 96.0% to 107.6% with coefficients of variation below 10%. In addition, the reliability of PMs-ICA was confirmed by the liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. The results indicated that the PMs-ICA could be used as a sensitive, simple, rapid point-of-care testing of AFB in maize.
Topics: Aflatoxin B1; Animals; Antibodies, Monoclonal; Chromatography, Affinity; Humans; Immunoassay; Limit of Detection; Microspheres; Mycotoxins; Polystyrenes; Reproducibility of Results; Zea mays
PubMed: 34202953
DOI: 10.3390/bios11060200 -
Toxicological Sciences : An Official... May 2023Microplastics represent an emerging environmental contaminant, with large gaps in our understanding of human health impacts. Furthermore, environmental factors may...
Microplastics represent an emerging environmental contaminant, with large gaps in our understanding of human health impacts. Furthermore, environmental factors may modify the plastic chemistry, further altering the toxic potency. Ultraviolet (UV) light is one such unavoidable factor for airborne microplastic particulates and a known modifier of polystyrene surface chemistry. As an experimental model, we aged commercially available polystyrene microspheres for 5 weeks with UV radiation, then compared the cellular responses in A549 lung cells with both pristine and irradiated particulates. Photoaging altered the surface morphology of irradiated microspheres and increased the intensities of polar groups on the near-surface region of the particles as indicated by scanning electron microscopy and by fitting of high-resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy C 1s spectra, respectively. Even at low concentrations (1-30 µg/ml), photoaged microspheres at 1 and 5 µm in diameter exerted more pronounced biological responses in the A549 cells than was caused by pristine microspheres. High-content imaging analysis revealed S and G2 cell cycle accumulation and morphological changes, which were also more pronounced in A549 cells treated with photoaged microspheres, and further influenced by the size, dose, and time of exposures. Polystyrene microspheres reduced monolayer barrier integrity and slowed regrowth in a wound healing assay in a manner dependent on dose, photoaging, and size of the microsphere. UV-photoaging generally enhanced the toxicity of polystyrene microspheres in A549 cells. Understanding the influence of weathering and environmental aging, along with size, shape, and chemistry, on microplastics biocompatibility may be an essential consideration for incorporation of different plastics in products.
Topics: Humans; Lung; Microplastics; Microspheres; Oxidative Stress; Plastics; Polystyrenes; Water Pollutants, Chemical
PubMed: 36881996
DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfad023 -
Analytical Chemistry Nov 2021Plastic pollution has reached alarming levels in recent years. While macro- and microplastic pollution are attested and studied since the 1970s, much less is known about...
Plastic pollution has reached alarming levels in recent years. While macro- and microplastic pollution are attested and studied since the 1970s, much less is known about the associated nanoscopic fragments. Due to their ability to cross biological barriers and their extended surface area-to-volume ratio, nanoplastics (NPs) are currently considered as one of the major threats for aquatic and terrestrial environments. Therefore, analytical tools are urgently needed to detect and quantify NPs. In this study, a method exploiting the dependence of the fluorescence quantum yield of a probe, namely, 9-(2,2-dicyanovinyl)julolidine (DCVJ), toward its microenvironment was assessed to detect and quantify polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNs). In the presence of PSNs and after excitation at 450 nm, the single-emission band fluorescent molecular rotor (FMR) emission spectrum displays a second peak at 620 nm, which increases with the concentration of PSNs. In pure water, a limit of detection and quantification range of 475-563 μg·L and 1.582-1.875 mg·L, respectively, were obtained for 49 nm diameter polystyrene beads (PSB49). The results associated with 100 nm diameter PSNs amount to 518 μg·L and 1.725 mg·L. The robustness of the method toward different parameters, the complexity of the matrix, and the PSN characteristics was also assessed. Finally, the method was applied on biological samples. While PSB49 quantification was achieved using radish sprouts at concentrations up to 200 mg·L, it was more challenging when handling mussel tissues. This work presents the feasibility to quantify PSNs using DCVJ fluorescence. It paves the way to new perspectives in the challenging field of NPs.
Topics: Animals; Bivalvia; Fluorescent Dyes; Nanoparticles; Plastics; Polystyrenes
PubMed: 34735123
DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c02055 -
Chemosphere Sep 2022Polystyrene is a thermoplastic polymer widely used in commercial products. Like all plastics, polystyrene can be degraded into microplastic and nanoplastic particles and...
Polystyrene is a thermoplastic polymer widely used in commercial products. Like all plastics, polystyrene can be degraded into microplastic and nanoplastic particles and ingested via food chain contamination. Although the ecological impact due to plastic contamination is well known, there are no studies indicating a carcinogenic potential of polystyrene microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs). Here, we evaluated the effects of the MPs and NPs on normal human intestinal CCD-18Co cells. Our results show that internalization of NPs and MPs induces metabolic changes under both acute and chronic exposure by inducing oxidative stress, increasing glycolysis via lactate to sustain energy metabolism and glutamine metabolism to sustain anabolic processes. We also show that this decoupling of nutrients mirrors the effect of the potent carcinogenic agent azoxymethane and HCT15 colon cancer cells, carrying out the typical strategy of cancer cells to optimize nutrients utilization and allowing metabolic adaptation to environmental stress conditions. Taken together our data provide new evidence that chronic NPs and MPs exposure could act as cancer risk factor for human health.
Topics: Colon; Humans; Microplastics; Plastics; Polystyrenes; Risk Factors; Water Pollutants, Chemical
PubMed: 35580641
DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134947 -
Journal of Hazardous Materials Oct 2022The effects of polystyrene microplastic (PS-MP) size on neurotoxicity remain to be evaluated at various microsizes, and the seizurogenic effects of PS-MPs are unknown....
The effects of polystyrene microplastic (PS-MP) size on neurotoxicity remain to be evaluated at various microsizes, and the seizurogenic effects of PS-MPs are unknown. This study aimed to evaluate the swimming behavior of zebrafish larvae under light-dark transitions after exposure to four PS-MP sizes (i.e., 1, 6, 10, and 25 μm) at concentrations of 500, 5,000, and 50,000 particles/mL. Changes in electroencephalographic signals, seizure-related gene expression, and neurochemical concentrations were measured. Locomotor activity was inhibited only by 10-μm PS-MPs. According to electroencephalographic signals, the number and total duration of seizure-like events significantly increased by 10-μm PS-MPs, which was confirmed by the altered expression of seizure-related genes c-fos and pvalb5. Additionally, an increase in the levels of neurochemicals choline, betaine, dopamine, 3-methoxytyramine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid indicated that the observed hypoactivity and seizure-like behavior were associated with the dysregulation of the cholinergic, dopaminergic, and GABAergic systems. Overall, these findings demonstrate that exposure to PS-MPs can potentially cause seizurogenic effects in developing zebrafish embryos, and we highlight that PS-MPs 10 µm in size dominantly affect neurotoxicity.
Topics: Animals; Microplastics; Plastics; Polystyrenes; Seizures; Zebrafish
PubMed: 36104895
DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129616 -
Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex... Nov 2022Freshwater ecosystems are recognized as non-negligible sources of plastic contamination for the marine environment that is the final acceptor of 53 thousand tons of...
Freshwater ecosystems are recognized as non-negligible sources of plastic contamination for the marine environment that is the final acceptor of 53 thousand tons of plastic per year. In this context, microplastic particles are well known to directly pose a great threat to freshwater organisms, they also indirectly affect the aquatic ecosystem by adsorbing and acting as a vector for the transport of other pollutants ("Trojan horse effect"). Polystyrene is one of the most widely produced plastics on a global scale, and it is among the most abundant microplastic particles found in freshwaters. Nevertheless, to date few studies have focused on the eco-genotoxic effects on freshwater organisms caused by polystyrene microplastic particles (PS-MPs) in combination with other pollutants such as pharmaceuticals and pesticides. The aim of this study is to investigate chronic and sub-chronic effects of the microplastic polystyrene beads (PS-MP, 1.0 μm) both as individual xenobiotic and in combination (binary/ternary mixtures) with the acicloguanosine antiviral drug acyclovir (AC), and the neonicotinoid broad-spectrum insecticide imidacloprid (IMD) in one of the most sensitive non-target organisms of the freshwater food chain: the cladoceran crustacean Ceriodaphnia dubia. Considering that the individually selected xenobiotics have different modes of action and/or different biological sites, the Bliss independence was used as reference model for this research. Basically, when C. dubia neonates were exposed for 24 h to the mixtures during Comet assay, mostly an antagonistic genotoxic effect was observed. When neonates were exposed to the mixtures for 7 days, mostly an additive chronic toxic effect occurred at concentrations very close or even overlapping to the environmental ones ranging from units to tens of ng/L for PS-MPs, from tenths/hundredths to units of μg/L for AC and from units to hundreds of μg/L for IMD, revealing great environmental concern.
Topics: Acyclovir; Animals; Antiviral Agents; Cladocera; DNA Damage; Ecosystem; Insecticides; Microplastics; Neonicotinoids; Pesticides; Plastics; Polystyrenes; Water Pollutants, Chemical; Xenobiotics
PubMed: 36075334
DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120088