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Infectious Disease Clinics of North... Dec 2019Recently, concern has been raised about the emergence of human monkeypox virus and the occasionally severe clinical presentation bearing resemblance to that of smallpox.... (Review)
Review
Recently, concern has been raised about the emergence of human monkeypox virus and the occasionally severe clinical presentation bearing resemblance to that of smallpox. In 2018 3 patients in the UK were diagnosed with monkeypox, and the frequency and geographic distribution of cases across West and Central Africa have increased in recent years. In Nigeria, most monkeypox patients are aged <40 years and lack cross-protective immunity because they were born after discontinuation of the smallpox eradication campaign. This article reviews the epidemiology, clinical features, and management of monkeypox and discusses its growing public health threat in this context.
Topics: Africa; Animals; Humans; Mpox (monkeypox); Monkeypox virus; Risk Factors; Zoonoses
PubMed: 30981594
DOI: 10.1016/j.idc.2019.03.001 -
Indian Journal of Pediatrics Oct 2022Monkeypox is caused by a pox virus closely related to smallpox virus and spreads from animals to humans, and humans to humans following close contact. Prior smallpox... (Review)
Review
Monkeypox is caused by a pox virus closely related to smallpox virus and spreads from animals to humans, and humans to humans following close contact. Prior smallpox vaccination gives partial protection against monkeypox. The steady increase in monkeypox cases in Africa over the past few decades were ignored by the global scientific community till this year, when more than 16,000 cases have been reported from nonendemic countries. Monkeypox has recently been labelled as a public health emergency of international concern by the WHO. While most of the current cases are in men who have sex with men, there is the larger threat of the disease spilling into the general population. The disease is characterized by a short febrile illness with lymphadenopathy followed by a rash which spreads centrifugally and passes through phases of macules, papules, vesicles, and pustules. Recovery occurs in most patients within 2-4 wk. Complications are more likely in children, pregnant women, and the immunocompromised. Specific diagnosis is by detection of viral DNA by PCR. Treatment is largely symptomatic. Tecorivimat is a promising antiviral drug. Vaccination with the currently available smallpox vaccines is recommended for high-risk groups, health care workers, and close contacts. Control of the monkeypox outbreak needs a multipronged effort comprising enhanced surveillance, quick diagnosis, isolation of affected people, ring immunization, and adoption of "one health" approach.
Topics: Animals; Child; Female; Humans; Male; Pregnancy; Antiviral Agents; DNA, Viral; Homosexuality, Male; Mpox (monkeypox); Sexual and Gender Minorities; Smallpox; Smallpox Vaccine
PubMed: 35947269
DOI: 10.1007/s12098-022-04348-0 -
Emerging Microbes & Infections Dec 2022The current outbreak of monkeypox (MPX) infection has emerged as a global matter of concern in the last few months. MPX is a zoonosis caused by the MPX virus (MPXV),... (Review)
Review
The current outbreak of monkeypox (MPX) infection has emerged as a global matter of concern in the last few months. MPX is a zoonosis caused by the MPX virus (MPXV), which is one of the species. Thus, it is similar to smallpox caused by the variola virus, and smallpox vaccines and drugs have been shown to be protective against MPX. Although MPX is not a new disease and is rarely fatal, the current multi-country MPX outbreak is unusual because it is occurring in countries that are not endemic for MPXV. In this work, we reviewed the extensive literature available on MPXV to summarize the available data on the major biological, clinical and epidemiological aspects of the virus and the important scientific findings. This review may be helpful in raising awareness of MPXV transmission, symptoms and signs, prevention and protective measures. It may also be of interest as a basis for performance of studies to further understand MPXV, with the goal of combating the current outbreak and boosting healthcare services and hygiene practices. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02977715.. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03745131.. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00728689.. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02080767..
Topics: Humans; Mpox (monkeypox); Smallpox; Monkeypox virus
PubMed: 36263798
DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2022.2132882 -
Drugs Jun 2022Human monkeypox is a zoonotic orthopoxvirus with presentation similar to smallpox. Monkeypox is transmitted incidentally to humans when they encounter infected animals....
Human monkeypox is a zoonotic orthopoxvirus with presentation similar to smallpox. Monkeypox is transmitted incidentally to humans when they encounter infected animals. Reports have shown that the virus can also be transmitted through direct contact (sexual or skin-to-skin), respiratory droplets, and via fomites such as towels and bedding. Multiple medical countermeasures are stockpiled for orthopoxviruses such as monkeypox. Two vaccines are currently available, JYNNEOS (live, replication incompetent vaccinia virus) and ACAM2000 (live, replication competent vaccinia virus). While most cases of monkeypox will have mild and self-limited disease, with supportive care being typically sufficient, antivirals (e.g. tecovirimat, brincidofovir, cidofovir) and vaccinia immune globulin intravenous (VIGIV) are available as treatments. Antivirals can be considered in severe disease, immunocompromised patients, pediatrics, pregnant and breastfeeding women, complicated lesions, and when lesions appear near the mouth, eyes, and genitals. The purpose of this short review is to describe each of these countermeasures.
Topics: Animals; Antiviral Agents; Child; Cidofovir; Female; Humans; Mpox (monkeypox); Pregnancy; Smallpox; Vaccinia virus
PubMed: 35763248
DOI: 10.1007/s40265-022-01742-y -
Clinical Microbiology Reviews Dec 2022Human monkeypox is a viral zoonosis endemic to West and Central Africa that has recently generated increased interest and concern on a global scale as an emerging... (Review)
Review
Human monkeypox is a viral zoonosis endemic to West and Central Africa that has recently generated increased interest and concern on a global scale as an emerging infectious disease threat in the midst of the slowly relenting COVID-2019 disease pandemic. The hallmark of infection is the development of a flu-like prodrome followed by the appearance of a smallpox-like exanthem. Precipitous person-to-person transmission of the virus among residents of 100 countries where it is nonendemic has motivated the immediate and widespread implementation of public health countermeasures. In this review, we discuss the origins and virology of monkeypox virus, its link with smallpox eradication, its record of causing outbreaks of human disease in regions where it is endemic in wildlife, its association with outbreaks in areas where it is nonendemic, the clinical manifestations of disease, laboratory diagnostic methods, case management, public health interventions, and future directions.
Topics: Humans; Monkeypox virus; Mpox (monkeypox); Smallpox; COVID-19; Africa, Central
PubMed: 36374082
DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00092-22 -
Viruses Nov 2020Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), which is a member of orthopoxvirus genus. The reemergence of MPXV in 2017 (at Bayelsa state) after 39... (Review)
Review
Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), which is a member of orthopoxvirus genus. The reemergence of MPXV in 2017 (at Bayelsa state) after 39 years of no reported case in Nigeria, and the export of travelers' monkeypox (MPX) from Nigeria to other parts of the world, in 2018 and 2019, respectively, have raised concern that MPXV may have emerged to occupy the ecological and immunological niche vacated by smallpox virus. This review X-rays the current state of knowledge pertaining the infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution of MPXV in Nigeria and worldwide, especially with regard to the human, cellular, and viral factors that modulate the virus transmission dynamics, infection, and its maintenance in nature. This paper also elucidates the role of recombination, gene loss and gene gain in MPXV evolution, chronicles the role of signaling in MPXV infection, and reviews the current therapeutic options available for the treatment and prevention of MPX. Additionally, genome-wide phylogenetic analysis was undertaken, and we show that MPXV isolates from recent 2017 outbreak in Nigeria were monophyletic with the isolate exported to Israel from Nigeria but do not share the most recent common ancestor with isolates obtained from earlier outbreaks, in 1971 and 1978, respectively. Finally, the review highlighted gaps in knowledge particularly the non-identification of a definitive reservoir host animal for MPXV and proposed future research endeavors to address the unresolved questions.
Topics: Animals; DNA, Viral; Evolution, Molecular; Humans; Mice; Mpox (monkeypox); Monkeypox virus; Nigeria; Phylogeny; Recombination, Genetic; Viral Zoonoses
PubMed: 33167496
DOI: 10.3390/v12111257 -
Viruses Jan 2020Widespread vaccination programmes led to the global eradication of smallpox, which was certified by the World Health Organisation (WHO), and, since 1978, there has been... (Review)
Review
Widespread vaccination programmes led to the global eradication of smallpox, which was certified by the World Health Organisation (WHO), and, since 1978, there has been no case of smallpox anywhere in the world. However, the viable variola virus (VARV), the causative agent of smallpox, is still kept in two maximum security laboratories in Russia and the USA. Despite the eradication of the disease smallpox, clandestine stocks of VARV may exist. In a rapidly changing world, the impact of an intentional VARV release in the human population would nowadays result in a public health emergency of global concern: vaccination programmes were abolished, the percentage of immunosuppressed individuals in the human population is higher, and an increased intercontinental air travel allows for the rapid viral spread of diseases around the world. The WHO has authorised the temporary retention of VARV to enable essential research for public health benefit to take place. This work aims to develop diagnostic tests, antiviral drugs, and safer vaccines. Advances in synthetic biology have made it possible to produce infectious poxvirus particles from chemicals in vitro so that it is now possible to reconstruct VARV. The status of smallpox in the post-eradication era is reviewed.
Topics: Antiviral Agents; Biohazard Release; Disease Eradication; Evolution, Molecular; Genome, Viral; Humans; Immunization Programs; Risk; Smallpox; Smallpox Vaccine; Synthetic Biology; Variola virus; World Health Organization
PubMed: 31991671
DOI: 10.3390/v12020138 -
Microbiology Spectrum Aug 2016Smallpox is considered among the most devastating of human diseases. Its spread in populations, initiated for thousands of years following a probable transmission from... (Review)
Review
Smallpox is considered among the most devastating of human diseases. Its spread in populations, initiated for thousands of years following a probable transmission from an animal host, was concomitant with movements of people across regions and continents, trade and wars. Literature permitted to retrace the occurrence of epidemics from ancient times to recent human history, smallpox having affected all levels of past society including famous monarchs. The disease was officially declared eradicated in 1979 following intensive vaccination campaigns.Paleomicrobiology dedicated to variola virus is restricted to few studies, most unsuccessful, involving ancient material. Only one recent approach allowed the identification of viral DNA fragments from lung tissue of a 300-year-old body excavated from permafrost in Eastern Siberia; phylogenetic analysis revealed that this ancient strain was distinct from those described during the 20th century.
Topics: Animals; Disease Transmission, Infectious; Epidemics; Global Health; History, 15th Century; History, 16th Century; History, 17th Century; History, 18th Century; History, 19th Century; History, 20th Century; History, Ancient; History, Medieval; Human Migration; Humans; Paleopathology; Poxviridae; Smallpox; Travel; Virology
PubMed: 27726788
DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.PoH-0004-2014 -
Virologica Sinica Aug 2022Human monkeypox (MPX) is a rare zoonotic infection characterized by smallpox-like signs and symptoms. It is caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), a double stranded DNA virus... (Review)
Review
Human monkeypox (MPX) is a rare zoonotic infection characterized by smallpox-like signs and symptoms. It is caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), a double stranded DNA virus belonging to the genus Orthopoxvirus. MPX was first identified in 1970 and mostly prevailed in the rural rainforests of Central and West Africa in the past. Outside Africa, MPX was reported in the United Kingdom, the USA, Israel, and Singapore. In 2022, the resurgence of MPX in Europe and elsewhere posed a potential threat to humans. MPXV was transmitted by the animals-human or human-human pathway, and the symptoms of MPXV infection are similar to that of smallpox, but in a milder form and with lower mortality (1%-10%). Although the smallpox vaccination has been shown to provide 85% protection against MPXV infection, and two anti-smallpox virus drugs have been approved to treat MPXV, there are still no specific vaccines and drugs against MPXV infection. Therefore it is urgent to take active measures including the adoption of novel anti-MPXV strategies to control the spread of MPXV and prevent MPX epidemic. In this review, we summarize the biological features, epidemiology, pathogenicity, laboratory diagnosis, and prevention and treatment strategies on MPXV. This review provides the basic knowledge for prevention and control of future outbreaks of this emerging infection.
Topics: Africa; Animals; Europe; Humans; Mpox (monkeypox); Monkeypox virus
PubMed: 35820590
DOI: 10.1016/j.virs.2022.07.006 -
The Journal of Infectious Diseases Sep 2021
Topics: History, 20th Century; History, 21st Century; Humans; Population Surveillance; Smallpox; Smallpox Vaccine; Vaccination; Variola virus
PubMed: 34590143
DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiaa588