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Journal of Exposure Science &... Jan 2024Advances in drinking water infrastructure and treatment throughout the 20 and early 21 century dramatically improved water reliability and quality in the United States... (Review)
Review
BACKGROUND
Advances in drinking water infrastructure and treatment throughout the 20 and early 21 century dramatically improved water reliability and quality in the United States (US) and other parts of the world. However, numerous chemical contaminants from a range of anthropogenic and natural sources continue to pose chronic health concerns, even in countries with established drinking water regulations, such as the US.
OBJECTIVE/METHODS
In this review, we summarize exposure risk profiles and health effects for seven legacy and emerging drinking water contaminants or contaminant groups: arsenic, disinfection by-products, fracking-related substances, lead, nitrate, per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) and uranium. We begin with an overview of US public water systems, and US and global drinking water regulation. We end with a summary of cross-cutting challenges that burden US drinking water systems: aging and deteriorated water infrastructure, vulnerabilities for children in school and childcare facilities, climate change, disparities in access to safe and reliable drinking water, uneven enforcement of drinking water standards, inadequate health assessments, large numbers of chemicals within a class, a preponderance of small water systems, and issues facing US Indigenous communities.
RESULTS
Research and data on US drinking water contamination show that exposure profiles, health risks, and water quality reliability issues vary widely across populations, geographically and by contaminant. Factors include water source, local and regional features, aging water infrastructure, industrial or commercial activities, and social determinants. Understanding the risk profiles of different drinking water contaminants is necessary for anticipating local and general problems, ascertaining the state of drinking water resources, and developing mitigation strategies.
IMPACT STATEMENT
Drinking water contamination is widespread, even in the US. Exposure risk profiles vary by contaminant. Understanding the risk profiles of different drinking water contaminants is necessary for anticipating local and general public health problems, ascertaining the state of drinking water resources, and developing mitigation strategies.
Topics: Child; Humans; Water Quality; Drinking Water; Reproducibility of Results; Aging; Arsenic
PubMed: 37739995
DOI: 10.1038/s41370-023-00597-z -
Heliyon Sep 2023Trihalomethanes (THMs) are the most dominant fraction of all the byproducts formed during chlorination of water. Disinfection by product (DBP) formation in water is a...
BACKGROUND
Trihalomethanes (THMs) are the most dominant fraction of all the byproducts formed during chlorination of water. Disinfection by product (DBP) formation in water is a function of numerous factors, including pH, temperature, residual chlorine, source water characteristics, and organic matter. No study has determined the THM level in the drinking water supply of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
METHODS
A cross-sectional design was conducted to collect water samples in the water supply distribution networks of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Twenty-one (21) sampling stations yielded a total of one hundred twenty (120) samples of drinking water. The sample handling and collection procedures were carried out in accordance with USEPA guidelines. A DB-5 capillary column was used to separate the THMs, which were detected using GC-ECD (gas chromatography-electron capture detector). Spectrophotometric and in situ methods were used for physicochemical parameters. Redundancy analysis (RDA) was used for data analysis of trihalomethanes and environmental variables using CANOCO 4.5.
RESULTS
The mean concentration of total trihalomethanes in drinking water in Addis Ababa was 76.3 μg/L. The concentration of chloroform in the drinking water supply in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, ranged between 4.03 and 79.4 μg/L. The mean total THMs in the Legedadi and Gefersa water supply systems were 77.4 μg/L and 69.66 μg/L, respectively. The residual chlorine, phosphates, UV absorbance at 254 nm, and combined chlorine had positive correlations with THM formation. However, electron conductivity had a negative correlation with THM formation.
CONCLUSIONS
Chloroform contributed the most to TTHMs in nearly all samples. The residual chlorine, UV absorbance, phosphate and hardness as calcium, and electron conductivity were found to be the main predictors determining the abundance and distribution of trihalomethanes. The monitoring and regulation of the THMs is required on a regular basis to analyse trends and guide the water treatment and distribution system.
PubMed: 37809755
DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19446 -
International Journal of Hygiene and... Jan 2024Drinking water quality data, though regularly monitored, is not available in Germany as national overview, but only decentralized from the water suppliers. On the... (Review)
Review
Drinking water quality data, though regularly monitored, is not available in Germany as national overview, but only decentralized from the water suppliers. On the national level, only the number of limit exceedances are reported. An overview on drinking water qualities as complete as possible however is necessary to assess and develop regulations and helpful for authorities, political decision makers, the public and the scientific community. Due to the fragmented nature of the data sources, web-scraping was used in the present study to mitigate aforementioned challenges and knowledge gaps. Data from 502 water supply areas were compiled and further evaluated. The extent and form of reported values varied strongly, as did the availability of data for the different water supply areas. The results show, that the scraped values were not close to but well below associated legal limits or guidance values. For organic parameters, the reported values were mostly below the respective limits of quantification. However, further developments are needed to cover more water supply areas in Germany and internationally.
Topics: Drinking Water; Environmental Monitoring; Germany; Water Quality; Water Supply
PubMed: 37995492
DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2023.114295 -
Microbiology Spectrum Aug 2023Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) is a common surfactant used in various hygienic products. Its interactions with bacteria were studied previously, but the three-way...
Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) is a common surfactant used in various hygienic products. Its interactions with bacteria were studied previously, but the three-way interaction between surfactants, bacteria, and dissolved salts in the context of bacterial adhesion has not been studied. Here, we examined the combined effects of SDS (at concentrations typical of everyday hygienic activities) and salts, sodium chloride, and calcium chloride (at concentrations typically found in tap water) on the adhesion behavior of the common opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We found that bacterial adhesion in the absence of SDS was dependent on the cation concentration rather than the total ionic strength and that combined treatment with several millimolar NaCl and SDS can increase bacterial adhesion. The addition of low concentrations of SDS (2 mM) to tens to hundreds millimolar concentrations of NaCl, typical of systems that suffer seawater incursion, reduced bacterial adhesion dramatically. Combined treatment with Ca (in concentrations typical of those found in hard water) and SDS produced a small increase in total adhesion but a dramatic increase in the strength of adhesion. We conclude that the type and concentration of salts in water can have a considerable effect on the efficacy of soap in reducing bacterial adhesion and should be taken under consideration in critical applications. Surface-adhering bacteria are a reoccurring problem in many settings, including households, municipal water systems, food production facilities, and hospitals. Surfactants, and specifically sodium dodecyl sulfate (also known as SDS/SLS), are commonly used to remove bacterial contamination, but data regarding the interaction of SDS with bacteria and especially the effects of water-dissolved salts on this interaction are lacking. Here, we show that calcium and sodium ions can dramatically affect the efficacy of SDS on bacterial adhesion behavior and conclude that salt concentrations and ion species in the water supply should be considered in SDS applications.
Topics: Surface-Active Agents; Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate; Sodium Chloride; Drinking Water; Salts; Bacteria
PubMed: 37409938
DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01011-23 -
The Science of the Total Environment Sep 2023Due to natural conditions such as geology, topography, and climate, and historical features such as resource utilization, land use, and settlement patterns, the drinking...
Due to natural conditions such as geology, topography, and climate, and historical features such as resource utilization, land use, and settlement patterns, the drinking water supply in Norway is separated into many public and private water supply systems. This survey sheds light on whether the Drinking Water Regulation's limit values provide a sufficient basis for ensuring safe drinking water for the Norwegian population. Participating waterworks, both private and public, were spread throughout the country, in 21 municipalities with different geological conditions. The median value for the number of persons supplied by the participating waterworks was 155. The two largest waterworks, both of which supply >10,000 people, have water sources from unconsolidated surficial sediments of latest Quaternary age. Fourteen waterworks have water sources from bedrock aquifers. Raw and treated water were analysed for 64 elements and selected anions. The concentration of manganese, iron, arsenic, aluminium, uranium, and fluoride exceeded the respective drinking water regulations' parametric value given in Directive (EU) 2020/2184. Regarding the rare earth elements, neither WHO, EU, USA nor Canada have established any limit values. However, concentration of lanthanum in groundwater from a sedimentary well exceeded the health-based guideline value that applies in Australia. Results from this study raise the question of whether increased precipitation can have an impact on the mobility and concentration of uranium in groundwater from bedrock aquifers. Furthermore, findings of high levels of lanthanum in groundwater create uncertainty as to whether the current quality control of Norwegian drinking water is sufficient.
Topics: Humans; Drinking Water; Lanthanum; Uranium; Water Pollutants, Chemical; Water Supply; Groundwater; Arsenic; Norway; Environmental Monitoring
PubMed: 37211126
DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164287 -
Veterinary Medicine and Science Nov 2023Medicinal plants or their products are popular substitutes for antibiotics or other synthetic growth promoters for their beneficial effects and cost-effectiveness. Clove...
BACKGROUND
Medicinal plants or their products are popular substitutes for antibiotics or other synthetic growth promoters for their beneficial effects and cost-effectiveness. Clove (Cv) and tulsi (Ts) are rich in phytochemicals and are used to augment the growth performance of poultry.
OBJECTIVES
The current investigation was carried out to evaluate the effects of Cv and Ts supplementation in drinking water on the morphologic and morphometric adaptations in the lymphoid organs.
METHODS
The experiment was conducted on 60 broiler chicks, divided into 4 homogenous groups (5 pens/group and 3 broilers/pen) named T0 (control), T1 (0.5% Cv and 2% Ts), T2 (1% Cv and 3% Ts) and T3 (1.5% Cv and 4% Ts). The treatments were administered from days 8 to 28. Lymphoid organs (thymus, spleen and bursa of Fabricius) were collected on days 14, 21 and 28 after sacrificing five broilers from each group.
RESULTS
The treatment groups had higher thymus and spleen weights on day 21, whereas the weights of the bursa of Fabricius were higher on days 14, 21 and 28. In the histomorphologic study, no noticeable difference in the histoarchitectures of the lymphoid organs was noticed. However, substantial differences in the cortico-medullary ratio and the number of follicles in the thymus and bursa of Fabricius, respectively, were found in the histomorphometric investigation.
CONCLUSION
The inclusion of Cv and Ts in drinking water augments the weight of lymphoid organs with histomorphometric adaptations that might improve the immune status in broilers.
Topics: Animals; Chickens; Syzygium; Drinking Water; Dietary Supplements; Ocimum sanctum; Plant Extracts
PubMed: 37655435
DOI: 10.1002/vms3.1250 -
BMC Medicine Feb 2024Environmental factors play an important role in developing mental disorders. This study aimed to investigate the associations of metal and nonmetal elements in drinking...
BACKGROUND
Environmental factors play an important role in developing mental disorders. This study aimed to investigate the associations of metal and nonmetal elements in drinking water with the risk of depression and anxiety and to assess whether diets modulate these associations.
METHODS
We conducted a prospective cohort study including 24,285 participants free from depression and anxiety from the Yinzhou Cohort study in the 2016-2021 period. The exposures were measured by multiplying metal and nonmetal element concentrations in local pipeline terminal tap water samples and total daily drinking water intakes. Cox regression models adjusted for multi-level covariates were used to estimate adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CIs).
RESULTS
During an average follow-up period of 4.72 and 4.68 years, 773 and 1334 cases of depression and anxiety were identified, respectively. A 1 standard deviation (SD) increase in manganese exposure reduced the incidence of depression by 8% (HR 0.92, 95%CI 0.88 to 0.97). In contrast, with a 1 SD increase in copper and cadmium exposure, the incidence of depression increased by 6% (HR 1.06, 95%CI 1.01 to 1.11) and 8% (HR 1.08, 95%CI 1.00 to 1.17), respectively. The incidence of anxiety increased by 39% (HR 1.39, 95%CI 1.20 to 1.62), 33% (HR 1.33, 95%CI 1.03 to 1.71), and 14% (HR 1.14, 95%CI 1.03 to 1.25) respectively for a 1 SD increase in manganese, iron, and selenium exposure. Diets have a moderating effect on the associations of metal and nonmetal elements with the risk of anxiety. Stronger associations were observed in older, low-income groups and low-education groups.
CONCLUSIONS
We found significant associations between exposure to metal and nonmetal elements and depression and anxiety. Diets regulated the associations to some extent.
Topics: Humans; Aged; Cohort Studies; Drinking Water; Manganese; Prospective Studies; Mental Health; Diet
PubMed: 38302940
DOI: 10.1186/s12916-024-03269-3 -
The Lancet. Microbe Aug 2023Antibiotic resistance is a leading cause of death, with the highest burden occurring in low-resource settings. There is little evidence on the potential for water,...
BACKGROUND
Antibiotic resistance is a leading cause of death, with the highest burden occurring in low-resource settings. There is little evidence on the potential for water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) access to reduce antibiotic resistance in humans. We aimed to determine the relationship between the burden of antibiotic resistance in humans and community access to drinking water and sanitation.
METHODS
In this ecological study, we linked publicly available, geospatially tagged human faecal metagenomes (from the US National Center for Biotechnology Information Sequence Read Archive) with georeferenced household survey datasets that reported access to drinking water sources and sanitation facility types. We used generalised linear models with robust SEs to estimate the relationship between the abundance of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in human faecal metagenomes and community-level coverage of improved drinking water and sanitation within a defined radii of faecal metagenome coordinates.
FINDINGS
We identified 1589 metagenomes from 26 countries. The mean abundance of ARGs, in units of log ARG fragments per kilobase per million mapped reads classified as bacteria, was highest in Africa compared with Europe (p=0·014), North America (p=0·0032), and the Western Pacific (p=0·011), and second highest in South-East Asia compared with Europe (p=0·047) and North America (p=0·014). Increased access to improved water and sanitation was associated with lower ARG abundance (effect estimate -0·22, [95% CI -0·39 to -0·05]) and the association was stronger in urban (-0·32 [-0·63 to 0·00]) than in rural (-0·16 [-0·38 to 0·07]) areas.
INTERPRETATION
Although additional studies to investigate causal effects are needed, increasing access to water and sanitation could be an effective strategy to curb the proliferation of antibiotic resistance in low-income and middle-income countries.
FUNDING
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
Topics: Humans; Drinking Water; Sanitation; Water Supply; Hygiene; Poverty
PubMed: 37399829
DOI: 10.1016/S2666-5247(23)00137-4 -
Water Research Sep 2023Discoloured drinking water, caused by elevated concentrations of organic and inorganic particles, is unacceptable. It occurs due to accumulation and subsequent... (Review)
Review
Discoloured drinking water, caused by elevated concentrations of organic and inorganic particles, is unacceptable. It occurs due to accumulation and subsequent mobilisation of material from within drinking water distribution infrastructure. Discolouration is currently partially explained by either the theories of cohesive layers or gravitational sedimentation. It is proposed and shown here how the processes behind these two theories both occur and how to integrate them to better explain observed behaviour and inform operational interventions to reduce discolouration. Deficiencies in understanding regarding the process and factors that influence material accumulation are highlighted. Future research addressing these deficiencies will enable determination of long term sustainable management strategies balancing capital investment and operational maintenance to safeguard distribution of high quality drinking water.
Topics: Drinking Water; Water Supply; Water Quality
PubMed: 37516082
DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120416 -
Kidney International Jul 2023Water is a dwindling natural resource, and potable water is wrongly considered an unlimited resource. Dialysis, particularly hemodialysis, is a water-hungry treatment... (Review)
Review
Water is a dwindling natural resource, and potable water is wrongly considered an unlimited resource. Dialysis, particularly hemodialysis, is a water-hungry treatment that impacts the environment. The global annual water use of hemodialysis is approximately 265 million m/yr. In this reference estimate, two-thirds of this water is represented by reverse osmosis reject water discharged into the drain. In this review, we would like to draw attention to the complexity and importance of water saving in hemodialysis. We propose that circular water management may comply with the "3R" concept: reduce (reduce dialysis need, reduce dialysate flow, and optimize reverse osmosis performance), reuse (reuse wastewater as potable water), and recycle (dialysis effluents for agriculture and aquaponic use). Awareness and sustainability should be integrated to create positive behaviors. Effective communication is crucial for water savings because local perspectives may lead to global opportunities. Besides the positive environmental impacts, planet-friendly alternatives may have significant financial returns. Innovative policies based on the transition from linear to circular water management may lead to a paradigm shift and establish a sustainable water management model. This review seeks to support policymakers in making informed decisions about water use, avoiding wasting, and finding solutions that may be planet friendly and patient friendly in dialysis, especially in hemodialysis treatments.
Topics: Humans; Renal Dialysis; Drinking Water; Drinking; Planets; Water Purification
PubMed: 37116701
DOI: 10.1016/j.kint.2023.04.008