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Journal of Integrative Neuroscience Oct 2023Gene-environment interaction is an emerging hypothesis to explain the increased incidence of neurological disorders. In this context, the health and clinical effects of... (Review)
Review
Gene-environment interaction is an emerging hypothesis to explain the increased incidence of neurological disorders. In this context, the health and clinical effects of exposure to air pollutants have received increasing attention. One of these pollutants is the growth of fungi and molds in the form of multicellular filaments, known as hyphae. Fungi and molds not only grow in outdoor environments, but they also thrive indoors with excessive moisture, producing mycotoxins. Mold enters the body through the nose via the olfactory neurons, which directly communicate with the brain. Mycotoxins induce toxicological effects similar to those associated with brain disorders such as oxidative stress and inflammation. One mold species can produce several different mycotoxins, and one mycotoxin can be produced by several different molds. Even a small amount of mold growth in the air conditioners and their ducts or the panels inside the buildings and even the cars cause the occupants to be chronically exposed to and constantly inhaling spores and mycotoxins, which causes illness. In this review, we focused on mold and mycotoxin exposure and brain disorders.
Topics: Mycotoxins; Air Pollution, Indoor; Fungi; Brain Diseases
PubMed: 38176924
DOI: 10.31083/j.jin2206137 -
Toxins Jun 2023Nowadays, pseudo-cereals' consumption is increasing due to their health benefits as they possess an excellent nutrient profile. Whole pseudo-cereal grains are rich in a... (Review)
Review
Nowadays, pseudo-cereals' consumption is increasing due to their health benefits as they possess an excellent nutrient profile. Whole pseudo-cereal grains are rich in a wide range of compounds, namely flavonoids, phenolic acids, fatty acids, and vitamins with known beneficial effects on human and animal health. Mycotoxins are common contaminants in cereals and by-products; however, the study of their natural occurrence in pseudo-cereals is currently scarce. Pseudo-cereals are similar to cereal grains; thus, mycotoxin contamination is expected to occur in pseudo-cereals. Indeed, mycotoxin-producing fungi have been reported in these matrices and, consequently, mycotoxin contents have been reported too, especially in buckwheat samples, where ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol reached levels up to 1.79 μg/kg and 580 μg/kg, respectively. In comparison to cereal contamination, mycotoxin levels detected in pseudo-cereal samples are lower; however, more studies are necessary in order to describe the mycotoxin pattern in these samples and to establish maximum levels that ensure human and animal health protection. In this review, mycotoxin occurrence in pseudo-cereal samples as well as the main extraction methods and analytical techniques to determine them are described, showing that mycotoxins can be present in pseudo-cereal samples and that the most employed techniques for their determination are liquid and gas chromatography coupled to different detectors.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Mycotoxins; Edible Grain; Food Contamination; Fungi; Whole Grains
PubMed: 37368680
DOI: 10.3390/toxins15060379 -
Toxins Jan 2024Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites of molds which can contaminate food and beverages. Because of their acute and chronic toxicity, they can have harmful effects when... (Review)
Review
Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites of molds which can contaminate food and beverages. Because of their acute and chronic toxicity, they can have harmful effects when ingested or inhaled, posing severe risks to human health. Contemporary analytical methods have the sensitivity required for contamination detection and quantification, but the direct application of these methods on real samples is not straightforward because of matrix complexity, and clean-up and preconcentration steps are needed, more and more requiring the application of highly selective solid-phase extraction materials. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are artificial receptors mimicking the natural antibodies that are increasingly being used as a solid phase in extraction methods where selectivity towards target analytes is mandatory. In this review, the state-of-the-art about molecularly imprinted polymers as solid-phase extraction materials in mycotoxin contamination analysis will be discussed, with particular attention paid to the use of mimic molecules in the synthesis of mycotoxin-imprinted materials, to the application of these materials to food real samples, and to the development of advanced extraction methods involving molecular imprinting technology.
Topics: Humans; Polymers; Mycotoxins; Molecularly Imprinted Polymers; Antibodies; Beverages
PubMed: 38251263
DOI: 10.3390/toxins16010047 -
The Science of the Total Environment Sep 2023Obesity, which is a worldwide public health issue, is associated with chronic inflammation that contribute to long-term complications, including insulin resistance, type...
Obesity, which is a worldwide public health issue, is associated with chronic inflammation that contribute to long-term complications, including insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. We hypothesized that obesity may also influence the sensitivity to food contaminants, such as fumonisin B1 (FB1), a mycotoxin produced mainly by the Fusarium verticillioides. FB1, a common contaminant of corn, is the most abundant and best characterized member of the fumonisins family. We investigated whether diet-induced obesity could modulate the sensitivity to oral FB1 exposure, with emphasis on gut health and hepatotoxicity. Thus, metabolic effects of FB1 were assessed in obese and non-obese male C57BL/6J mice. Mice received a high-fat diet (HFD) or normal chow diet (CHOW) for 15 weeks. Then, during the last three weeks, mice were exposed to these diets in combination or not with FB1 (10 mg/kg body weight/day) through drinking water. As expected, HFD feeding induced significant body weight gain, increased fasting glycemia, and hepatic steatosis. Combined exposure to HFD and FB1 resulted in body weight loss and a decrease in fasting blood glucose level. This co-exposition also induces gut dysbiosis, an increase in plasma FB1 level, a decrease in liver weight and hepatic steatosis. Moreover, plasma transaminase levels were significantly increased and associated with liver inflammation in HFD/FB1-treated mice. Liver gene expression analysis revealed that the combined exposure to HFD and FB1 was associated with reduced expression of genes involved in lipogenesis and increased expression of immune response and cell cycle-associated genes. These results suggest that, in the context of obesity, FB1 exposure promotes gut dysbiosis and severe liver inflammation. To our knowledge, this study provides the first example of obesity-induced hepatitis in response to a food contaminant.
Topics: Mice; Male; Animals; Fumonisins; Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2; Dysbiosis; Mice, Inbred C57BL; Liver; Obesity; Chemical and Drug Induced Liver Injury; Inflammation
PubMed: 37247733
DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164436 -
Toxins Jun 2023Although over the last 10 years several studies have focused on the emerging mycotoxins known as enniatins (ENNs), there is still a lack of knowledge regarding their... (Review)
Review
Although over the last 10 years several studies have focused on the emerging mycotoxins known as enniatins (ENNs), there is still a lack of knowledge regarding their toxicological effects and the development of a correct risk assessment. This is especially true for enniatin B1 (ENN B1), considered the younger sister of the widely studied enniatin B (ENN B). ENN B1 has been found in several food commodities and, as with other mycotoxins, presents antibacterial and antifungal properties. On the other hand, ENN B1 has shown cytotoxic activity, impairment of the cell cycle, the induction of oxidative stress, and changes in mitochondrial membrane permeabilization, as well as negative genotoxic and estrogenic effects. Overall, considering the paucity of information available regarding ENN B1, further studies are necessary to perform a risk assessment. This review summarizes information on the biological characteristics and toxicological effects of ENN B1 as well as the future challenges that this mycotoxin could present.
Topics: Mycotoxins; Depsipeptides; Oxidative Stress; Cell Cycle
PubMed: 37368684
DOI: 10.3390/toxins15060383 -
Life (Basel, Switzerland) Nov 2023Traditional meat products are commonly produced in small family businesses. However, big industries are also involved in the production of this kind of product,... (Review)
Review
Traditional meat products are commonly produced in small family businesses. However, big industries are also involved in the production of this kind of product, especially since a growing number of consumers crave the traditional taste and aromas. The popularization of original and organic products has resulted in a return to traditional production methods. Traditional meat products are produced worldwide. However, in such (domesticated) conditions there is a potential danger for mycotoxin contamination. This review aims to present the sources of mycotoxins in traditional meat products, the most common mycotoxins related to such meat products, and future prospects regarding the suppression of their occurrence. Special attention should be paid to reducing the transfer of mycotoxins via the food chain from animal feed to animals to humans (stable-to-table principle), which is also described in this review. Other sources of mycotoxins (spices, environment, etc.) should also be monitored for mycotoxins in traditional production. The importance of monitoring and regulating mycotoxins in meat products, especially in traditional meat products, is slowly being recognized by the institutions and hopefully, in the future, can deliver legally regulated limits for such products. This is especially important since meat products are available to the general population and can seriously affect human health.
PubMed: 38004351
DOI: 10.3390/life13112211 -
PeerJ 2023Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced by fungi that may cause serious health problems in humans and animals. Zearalenone is a secondary metabolite produced by fungi... (Review)
Review
Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced by fungi that may cause serious health problems in humans and animals. Zearalenone is a secondary metabolite produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium, widely exists in animal feed and human food. One concern with the use of microbial strains and their enzyme derivatives for zearalenone degradation is the potential variability in the effectiveness of the degradation process. The efficiency of degradation may depend on various factors such as the type and concentration of zearalenone, the properties of the microbial strains and enzymes, and the environmental conditions. Therefore, it is important to carefully evaluate the efficacy of these methods under different conditions and ensure their reproducibility. Another important consideration is the safety and potential side effects of using microbial strains and enzymes for zearalenone degradation. It is necessary to evaluate the potential risks associated with the use of genetically modified microorganisms or recombinant enzymes, including their potential impact on the environment and non-target organisms. Additionally, it is important to ensure that the degradation products are indeed harmless and do not pose any health risks to humans or animals. Furthermore, while the use of microbial strains and enzymes may offer an environmentally friendly and cost-effective solution for zearalenone degradation, it is important to explore other methods such as physical or chemical treatments as well. These methods may offer complementary approaches for zearalenone detoxification, and their combination with microbial or enzyme-based methods may improve overall efficacy. Overall, the research on the biodegradation of zearalenone using microorganisms and enzyme derivatives is promising, but there are important considerations that need to be addressed to ensure the safety and effectiveness of these methods. Development of recombinant enzymes improves enzymatic detoxification of zearalenone to a non-toxic product without damaging the nutritional content. This review summarizes biodegradation of zearalenone using microorganisms and enzyme derivatives to nontoxic products. Further research is needed to fully evaluate the potential of these methods for mitigating the impact of mycotoxins in food and feed.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Zearalenone; Reproducibility of Results; Mycotoxins; Animal Feed; Biodegradation, Environmental
PubMed: 37601268
DOI: 10.7717/peerj.15808 -
Essays in Biochemistry Sep 2023Toxigenic fungi, including Aspergillus and Fusarium species, contaminate our major cereal crops with an array of harmful mycotoxins, which threaten the health of humans... (Review)
Review
Toxigenic fungi, including Aspergillus and Fusarium species, contaminate our major cereal crops with an array of harmful mycotoxins, which threaten the health of humans and farmed animals. Despite our best efforts to prevent crop diseases, or postharvest spoilage, our cereals are consistently contaminated with aflatoxins and deoxynivalenol, and while established monitoring systems effectively prevent acute exposure, Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins still threaten our food security. This is through the understudied impacts of: (i) our chronic exposure to these mycotoxins, (ii) the underestimated dietary intake of masked mycotoxins, and (iii) the synergistic threat of cocontaminations by multiple mycotoxins. Mycotoxins also have profound economic consequences for cereal and farmed-animal producers, plus their associated food and feed industries, which results in higher food prices for consumers. Climate change and altering agronomic practices are predicted to exacerbate the extent and intensity of mycotoxin contaminations of cereals. Collectively, this review of the diverse threats from Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins highlights the need for renewed and concerted efforts to understand, and mitigate, the increased risks they pose to our food and feed cereals.
Topics: Humans; Animals; Mycotoxins; Edible Grain; Food Contamination; Fungi; Aspergillus; Fusarium
PubMed: 37313591
DOI: 10.1042/EBC20220221 -
Mycotoxin Research Aug 2023Zearalenone is a frequently occurring and well-known mycotoxin developed in cereals before and during the harvest period by Fusarium spp. mainly in maize and wheat. In... (Review)
Review
Zearalenone is a frequently occurring and well-known mycotoxin developed in cereals before and during the harvest period by Fusarium spp. mainly in maize and wheat. In addition to the main form, various modified forms (phase I and II metabolites) were detected, in some cases in high amounts. These modified forms can be harmful for human health due to their different toxicity, which can be much higher compared to the parent toxin. In addition, the parent toxin can be cleaved from the phase I and II metabolites during digestion. A risk of correlated and additive adverse effects of the metabolites of ZEN phase I and II in humans and animals is evident. ZEN is considered in many studies on its occurrence in grain-based foods and some studies are dedicated to the behavior of ZEN during food processing. This is not the case for the ZEN phase I and II metabolites, which are only included in a few occurrence reports. Their effects during food processing is also only sporadically addressed in studies to date. In addition to the massive lack of data on the occurrence and behavior of ZEN modified forms, there is also a lack of comprehensive clarification of the toxicity of the numerous different ZEN metabolites detected to date. Finally, studies on the fate during digestion of the relevant ZEN metabolites will be important in the future to further clarify their relevance in processed foods such as bakery products.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Zearalenone; Mycotoxins; Fusarium; Edible Grain; Zea mays
PubMed: 37322296
DOI: 10.1007/s12550-023-00493-3 -
Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) Aug 2023Among the toxic metabolites of the fungal world, those that, due to their strong biological effect, can seriously (even fatally) damage the life processes of humans (and... (Review)
Review
Among the toxic metabolites of the fungal world, those that, due to their strong biological effect, can seriously (even fatally) damage the life processes of humans (and certain groups of animals) stand out. Amatoxin-containing mushrooms and the poisonings caused by them stand out from the higher fungi, the mushrooms. There are already historical data and records about such poisonings, but scientific research on the responsible molecules began in the middle of the last century. The goals of this review work are as follows: presentation of the cosmopolitan mushroom species that produce amanitins (which are known from certain genera of four mushroom families), an overview of the chemical structure and specific properties of amanitins, a summary of the analytical methods applicable to them, a presentation of the "medical history" of poisonings, and a summary of the therapeutic methods used so far. The main responsible molecules (the amanitins) are bicyclic octapeptides, whose structure is characterized by an outer loop and an inner loop (bridge). It follows from the unusual properties of amanitins, especially their extreme stability (against heat, the acidic pH of the medium, and their resistance to human, and animal, digestive enzymes), that they are absorbed almost without hindrance and quickly transported to our vital organs. Adding to the problems is that accidental consumption causes no noticeable symptoms for a few hours (or even 24-36 h) after consumption, but the toxins already damage the metabolism of the target organs and the synthesis of nucleic acid and proteins. The biochemical catastrophe of the cells causes irreversible structural changes, which lead to necrotic damage (in the liver and kidneys) and death. The scientific topicality of the review is due to the recent publication of new data on the probable antidote molecule (ICR: indocyanine green) against amanitins. Further research can provide a new foundation for the therapeutic treatment of poisonings, and the toxicological situation, which currently still poses a deadly threat, could even be tamed into a controllable problem. We also draw attention to the review conclusions, as well as the mycological and social tasks related to amanitin poisonings (prevention of poisonings).
Topics: Amanitins; Agaricales; Humans; Animals; Mushroom Poisoning
PubMed: 37570902
DOI: 10.3390/molecules28155932