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Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) Jan 2024In 2021, global plastics production was 390.7 Mt; in 2022, it was 400.3 Mt, showing an increase of 2.4%, and this rising tendency will increase yearly. Of this data,... (Review)
Review
In 2021, global plastics production was 390.7 Mt; in 2022, it was 400.3 Mt, showing an increase of 2.4%, and this rising tendency will increase yearly. Of this data, less than 2% correspond to bio-based plastics. Currently, polymers, including elastomers, are non-recyclable and come from non-renewable sources. Additionally, most elastomers are thermosets, making them complex to recycle and reuse. It takes hundreds to thousands of years to decompose or biodegrade, contributing to plastic waste accumulation, nano and microplastic formation, and environmental pollution. Due to this, the synthesis of elastomers from natural and renewable resources has attracted the attention of researchers and industries. In this review paper, new methods and strategies are proposed for the preparation of bio-based elastomers. The main goals are the advances and improvements in the synthesis, properties, and applications of bio-based elastomers from natural and industrial rubbers, polyurethanes, polyesters, and polyethers, and an approach to their circular economy and sustainability. Olefin metathesis is proposed as a novel and sustainable method for the synthesis of bio-based elastomers, which allows for the depolymerization or degradation of rubbers with the use of essential oils, terpenes, fatty acids, and fatty alcohols from natural resources such as chain transfer agents (CTA) or donors of the terminal groups in the main chain, which allow for control of the molecular weights and functional groups, obtaining new compounds, oligomers, and bio-based elastomers with an added value for the application of new polymers and materials. This tendency contributes to the development of bio-based elastomers that can reduce carbon emissions, avoid cross-contamination from fossil fuels, and obtain a greener material with biodegradable and/or compostable behavior.
Topics: Elastomers; Plastics; Polymers; Rubber; Polyurethanes
PubMed: 38257300
DOI: 10.3390/molecules29020387 -
Advanced Science (Weinheim,... Feb 2024The exponential growth of research on artificial cells and organelles underscores their potential as tools to advance the understanding of fundamental biological... (Review)
Review
The exponential growth of research on artificial cells and organelles underscores their potential as tools to advance the understanding of fundamental biological processes. The bottom-up construction from a variety of building blocks at the micro- and nanoscale, in combination with biomolecules is key to developing artificial cells. In this review, artificial cells are focused upon based on compartments where polymers are the main constituent of the assembly. Polymers are of particular interest due to their incredible chemical variety and the advantage of tuning the properties and functionality of their assemblies. First, the architectures of micro- and nanoscale polymer assemblies are introduced and then their usage as building blocks is elaborated upon. Different membrane-bound and membrane-less compartments and supramolecular structures and how they combine into advanced synthetic cells are presented. Then, the functional aspects are explored, addressing how artificial organelles in giant compartments mimic cellular processes. Finally, how artificial cells communicate with their surrounding and each other such as to adapt to an ever-changing environment and achieve collective behavior as a steppingstone toward artificial tissues, is taken a look at. Engineering artificial cells with highly controllable and programmable features open new avenues for the development of sophisticated multifunctional systems.
Topics: Artificial Cells; Polymers; Organelles
PubMed: 37984885
DOI: 10.1002/advs.202305837 -
International Journal of Molecular... Jan 2024The low percentage of recyclability of the polymeric materials obtained by olefin transition metal (TM) polymerization catalysis has increased the interest in their... (Review)
Review
The low percentage of recyclability of the polymeric materials obtained by olefin transition metal (TM) polymerization catalysis has increased the interest in their substitution with more eco-friendly materials with reliable physical and mechanical properties. Among the variety of known biodegradable polymers, linear aliphatic polyesters produced by ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of cyclic esters occupy a prominent position. The polymer properties are highly dependent on the macromolecule microstructure, and the control of stereoselectivity is necessary for providing materials with precise and finely tuned properties. In this review, we aim to outline the main synthetic routes, the physical properties and also the applications of three commercially available biodegradable materials: Polylactic acid (PLA), Poly(Lactic--Glycolic Acid) (PLGA), and Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (P3HB), all of three easily accessible via ROP. In this framework, understanding the origin of enantioselectivity and the factors that determine it is then crucial for the development of materials with suitable thermal and mechanical properties.
Topics: Polymerization; Esters; Polyesters; Polymers; 3-Hydroxybutyric Acid
PubMed: 38338928
DOI: 10.3390/ijms25031647 -
Macromolecular Bioscience Sep 2023The efficacious delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids to cancer still remains an open issue. Through the years, several strategies are developed for the encapsulation of... (Review)
Review
The efficacious delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids to cancer still remains an open issue. Through the years, several strategies are developed for the encapsulation of genetic molecules exploiting different materials, such as viral vectors, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), and polymeric nanoparticles (NPs). Indeed, the rapid approval by regulatory authorities and the wide use of LNPs complexing the mRNA coding for the spark protein for COVID-19 vaccination paved the way for the initiation of several clinical trials exploiting lipid nanoparticles for cancer therapy. Nevertheless, polymers still represent a valuable alternative to lipid-based formulations, due to the low cost and the chemical flexibility that allows for the conjugation of targeting ligands. This review will analyze the status of the ongoing clinical trials for cancer therapy, including vaccination and immunotherapy approaches, exploiting polymeric materials. Among those nanosized carriers, sugar-based backbones are an interesting category. A cyclodextrin-based carrier (CALAA-01) is the first polymeric material to enter a clinical trial complexed with siRNA for cancer therapy, and chitosan is one of the most characterized non-viral vectors able to complex genetic material. Finally, the recent advances in the use of sugar-based polymers (oligo- and polysaccharides) for the complexation of nucleic acids in advanced preclinical stage will be discussed.
Topics: Humans; Nucleic Acids; Nanomedicine; COVID-19 Vaccines; COVID-19; Polysaccharides; Nanoparticles; Polymers; Neoplasms; Carbohydrates; Sugars
PubMed: 37212473
DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202300102 -
Nature Chemistry Apr 2024Artificial cells are biomimetic microstructures that mimic functions of natural cells, can be applied as building blocks for molecular systems engineering, and host...
Artificial cells are biomimetic microstructures that mimic functions of natural cells, can be applied as building blocks for molecular systems engineering, and host synthetic biology pathways. Here we report enzymatically synthesized polymer-based artificial cells with the ability to express proteins. Artificial cells were synthesized using biocatalytic atom transfer radical polymerization-induced self-assembly, in which myoglobin synthesizes amphiphilic block co-polymers that self-assemble into structures such as micelles, worm-like micelles, polymersomes and giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs). The GUVs encapsulate cargo during the polymerization, including enzymes, nanoparticles, microparticles, plasmids and cell lysate. The resulting artificial cells act as microreactors for enzymatic reactions and for osteoblast-inspired biomineralization. Moreover, they can express proteins such as a fluorescent protein and actin when fed with amino acids. Actin polymerizes in the vesicles and alters the artificial cells' internal structure by creating internal compartments. Thus, biocatalytic atom transfer radical polymerization-induced self-assembly-derived GUVs can mimic bacteria as they are composed of a microscopic reaction compartment that contains genetic information for protein expression upon induction.
Topics: Polymerization; Artificial Cells; Micelles; Actins; Polymers; Unilamellar Liposomes
PubMed: 38049652
DOI: 10.1038/s41557-023-01391-y -
Carbohydrate Polymers Jul 2023Chitin-based nanoparticles are polysaccharide materials that can be produced from a waste stream of the seafood industry: crustacean shells. These nanoparticles have... (Review)
Review
Chitin-based nanoparticles are polysaccharide materials that can be produced from a waste stream of the seafood industry: crustacean shells. These nanoparticles have received exponentially growing attention, especially in the field of medicine and agriculture owing to their renewable origin, biodegradability, facile modification, and functionality adjustment. Due to their exceptional mechanical strength and high surface area, chitin-based nanoparticles are ideal candidates for reinforcing biodegradable plastics to ultimately replace traditional plastics. This review discusses the preparation methods for chitin-based nanoparticles and their applications. Special focus is on biodegradable plastics for food packaging making use of the features that can be created by the chitin-based nanoparticles.
Topics: Chitin; Biodegradable Plastics; Polymers; Food Packaging; Nanoparticles
PubMed: 37059529
DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2023.120789 -
Journal of Materials Science. Materials... Nov 20233D printing technology is an emerging method that gained extensive attention from researchers worldwide, especially in the health and medical fields. Biopolymers are an... (Review)
Review
3D printing technology is an emerging method that gained extensive attention from researchers worldwide, especially in the health and medical fields. Biopolymers are an emerging class of materials offering excellent properties and flexibility for additive manufacturing. Biopolymers are widely used in biomedical applications in biosensing, immunotherapy, drug delivery, tissue engineering and regeneration, implants, and medical devices. Various biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymeric materials are considered as bio-ink for 3d printing. Here, we offer an extensive literature review on the current applications of synthetic biopolymers in the field of 3D printing. A trend in the publication of biopolymers in the last 10 years are focused on the review by analyzing more than 100 publications. Their application and classification based on biodegradability are discussed. The various studies, along with their practical applications, are elaborated in the subsequent sections for polyethylene, polypropylene, polycaprolactone, polylactide, etc. for biomedical applications. The disadvantages of various biopolymers are discussed, and future perspectives like combating biocompatibility problems using 3D printed biomaterials to build compatible prosthetics are also discussed and the potential application of using resin with the combination of biopolymers to build customized implants, personalized drug delivery systems and organ on a chip technologies are expected to open a new set of chances for the development of healthcare and regenerative medicine in the future.
Topics: Artificial Limbs; Biopolymers; Polyethylene; Polymers; Printing, Three-Dimensional; Polypropylenes
PubMed: 37982917
DOI: 10.1007/s10856-023-06765-9 -
Journal of Materials Chemistry. B Mar 2024Due to limitations of biological and alloplastic grafts, regenerative engineering has emerged as a promising alternative to treat bone defects. Bioactive polymeric... (Review)
Review
Due to limitations of biological and alloplastic grafts, regenerative engineering has emerged as a promising alternative to treat bone defects. Bioactive polymeric scaffolds are an integral part of such an approach. Bioactivity importantly induces hydroxyapatite mineralization that promotes osteoinductivity and osseointegration with surrounding bone tissue. Strategies to confer bioactivity to polymeric scaffolds utilize bioceramic fillers, coatings and surface treatments, and additives. These approaches can also favorably impact mechanical and degradation properties. A variety of fabrication methods are utilized to prepare scaffolds with requisite morphological features. The bioactivity of scaffolds may be evaluated with a broad set of techniques, including (acellular and cellular) and methods. Herein, we highlight contemporary and emerging approaches to prepare and assess scaffold bioactivity, as well as existing challenges.
Topics: Tissue Scaffolds; Polymers; Bone and Bones; Durapatite
PubMed: 38410921
DOI: 10.1039/d3tb02674d -
Nanotheranostics 2023Antimicrobial polymers (AMP) appear to be a promising candidate to deal with the current scenario of bacterial resistance against conventional drugs and antibiotics as...
Antimicrobial polymers (AMP) appear to be a promising candidate to deal with the current scenario of bacterial resistance against conventional drugs and antibiotics as they mainly depend on disrupting the bacterial membrane. This work investigates the effect of polycations bearing aromatic and aliphatic pendant cationic groups on the antimicrobial performance of AMP. A radical polymerization strategy was adopted to synthesize two different copolymers and convert them into polycations upon post-modification. Polyelectrolytes were converted into nanoparticles by nanoprecipitation and named PE1 and PE2. Polymers were analyzed by NMR, FT-IR, and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). PE1 and PE2 nanoparticles were uniform, spherical particles from FESEM, size, and zeta potential measurements. The antimicrobial properties of polyelectrolytes were determined against pathogenic (), and bacterias. The biocidal activity determination studies showed that polyelectrolyte PE2 with aromatic pendant units outperformed PE1 with the aliphatic pendant group. This work highlights the remarkable effect of aromatic segmentation, which provides microbial inhibition, and killing is demonstrated as an antibacterial surface coating.
Topics: Polyelectrolytes; Escherichia coli; Spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared; Polymers; Anti-Bacterial Agents; Nanoparticles
PubMed: 37650012
DOI: 10.7150/ntno.84574 -
Chemical Society Reviews Jun 2024Polymer prodrugs are based on the covalent linkage of therapeutic molecules to a polymer structure which avoids the problems and limitations commonly encountered with... (Review)
Review
Polymer prodrugs are based on the covalent linkage of therapeutic molecules to a polymer structure which avoids the problems and limitations commonly encountered with traditional drug-loaded nanocarriers in which drugs are just physically entrapped (, burst release, poor drug loadings). In the past few years, reversible-deactivation radical polymerization (RDRP) techniques have been extensively used to design tailor-made polymer prodrug nanocarriers. This synthesis strategy has received a lot of attention due to the possibility of fine tuning their structural parameters (, polymer nature and macromolecular characteristics, linker nature, physico-chemical properties, functionalization, ), to achieve optimized drug delivery and therapeutic efficacy. In particular, adjusting the nature of the drug-polymer linker has enabled the easy synthesis of stimuli-responsive polymer prodrugs for efficient spatiotemporal drug release. In this context, this review article will give an overview of the different stimuli-sensitive polymer prodrug structures designed by RDRP techniques, with a strong focus on the synthesis strategies, the macromolecular architectures and in particular the drug-polymer linker, which governs the drug release kinetics and eventually the therapeutic effect. Their biological evaluations will also be discussed.
Topics: Prodrugs; Polymerization; Drug Carriers; Humans; Polymers; Nanoparticles; Drug Liberation; Free Radicals
PubMed: 38775004
DOI: 10.1039/d2cs01060g