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Journal of Applied Microbiology Dec 2021Human milk is elixir for neonates and is a rich source of nutrients and beneficial microbiota required for infant growth and development. Its benefits prompted research... (Review)
Review
Human milk is elixir for neonates and is a rich source of nutrients and beneficial microbiota required for infant growth and development. Its benefits prompted research into probing the milk components and their use as prophylactic or therapeutic agents. Culture-independent estimation of milk microbiome and high-resolution identification of milk components provide information, but a holistic purview of these research domains is lacking. Here, we review the current research on bio-therapeutic components of milk and simplified future directions for its efficient usage. Publicly available databases such as PubMed and Google scholar were searched for keywords such as probiotics and prebiotics related to human milk, microbiome and milk oligosaccharides. This was further manually curated for inclusion and exclusion criteria relevant to human milk and clinical efficacy. The literature was classified into subgroups and then discussed in detail to facilitate understanding. Although milk research is still in infancy, it is clear that human milk has many functions including protection of infants by passive immunization through secreted antibodies, and transfer of immune regulators, cytokines and bioactive peptides. Unbiased estimates show that the human milk carries a complex community of microbiota which serves as the initial inoculum for establishment of infant gut. Our search effectively screened for evidence that shows that milk also harbours many types of prebiotics such as human milk oligosaccharides which encourage growth of beneficial probiotics. The milk also trains the naive immune system of the infant by supplying immune cells and stimulatory factors, thereby strengthening mucosal and systemic immune system. Our systematic review would improve understanding of human milk and the inherent complexity and diversity of human milk. The interrelated functional role of human milk components especially the oligosaccharides and microbiome has been discussed which plays important role in human health.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Infant; Microbiota; Milk; Milk, Human; Oligosaccharides; Prebiotics; Probiotics
PubMed: 33740837
DOI: 10.1111/jam.15078 -
Carbohydrate Polymers Sep 2022Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are complex glycans that are the third largest solid component in human milk. It has attracted great interest in recent years due to... (Review)
Review
Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are complex glycans that are the third largest solid component in human milk. It has attracted great interest in recent years due to their critical role in boosting infant health. These oligosaccharides play an important role in a variety of physiological processes, such as shaping the infant gut microbiome, preventing pathogenic infections and promoting the development of immune system. However, limited availability of HMOs hampered their use in food and medical areas. Moreover, most of the HMOs are unique to human milk and difficult to isolate. The strategies, chemical synthesis, whole-cell fermentation, and purification from human milk, have their advantages and come with their own challenges. In this review, we examined the remarkable progress that has been made in the enzymatic and chemoenzymatic synthesis of HMOs, and discussed the challenges and opportunities in large-scale synthesis of HMOs.
Topics: Gastrointestinal Microbiome; Humans; Immune System; Milk, Human; Oligosaccharides; Polysaccharides
PubMed: 35698389
DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119564 -
Nestle Nutrition Institute Workshop... 2020At the beginning of the 21st century, some pioneer studies provided evidence of the existence of a site-specific human milk microbiota. Hygienically collected milk... (Review)
Review
At the beginning of the 21st century, some pioneer studies provided evidence of the existence of a site-specific human milk microbiota. Hygienically collected milk samples from healthy women contain a relatively low bacterial load, which consist mostly of Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, lactic acid bacteria, and other gram-positive bacteria (Corynebacterium, Propionibacterium, and Bifidobacterium). DNA from strict anaerobic bacteria is also detected in human milk samples. The origin of human milk bacteria still remains largely unknown. Although the infant's oral cavity and maternal skin may provide microbes to milk, selected bacteria of the maternal digestive microbiota may access the mammary glands through oral- and enteromammary pathways involving interactions with immune cells. In addition, when milk is collected using external devices, such as breast pumps, some microorganisms may arise from unhygienic handling as well as from the water used to clean and rinse the devices, for example. The human milk microbiota has a wide spectrum of potential uses. Most of them have been focused on the infant (including the preterm ones), but some bacterial strains present in human milk have also a big potential to be used to improve the mother's health, mainly through the prevention or treatment of infectious mastitis during lactation.
Topics: Breast Feeding; Female; Humans; Lactation; Microbiota; Milk, Human; Mouth
PubMed: 32172230
DOI: 10.1159/000505031 -
Nutrients Apr 2021Whole milk is a good source of all the nutrients, and it also contains a sufficient number of vitamins to permit regular the growth of the neonate. Dairy cow milk can... (Review)
Review
Whole milk is a good source of all the nutrients, and it also contains a sufficient number of vitamins to permit regular the growth of the neonate. Dairy cow milk can create allergy in infants less than 12 months old because of the high caseins and β-lactoglobulin content. In these circumstances, donkey milk can represent a good replacement for dairy cows' milk in children affected by Cow Milk Protein Allergy (CMPA) because of its close chemical composition with human milk, mainly due to its low protein and low mineral content. Milk vitamin content is highly variable among mammalian species and it is strictly correlated with the vitamin status and the diet administered to the mother. Fat-soluble vitamins content in donkey milk is, on average, lower compared to ruminants' milk, while vitamin C content determined in donkey milk is higher compared to dairy cows' milk, showing a great similarity with human milk. In donkey milk, the content of vitamins of the B-complex such as thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, and folic acid is higher compared to human milk. The use of donkey milk as a new functional food must be further evaluated in interdisciplinary clinical trials in which pediatricians, dietitians, and food scientists must be involved to deepen the knowledge about the positive health impact of donkey milk in different sensitive people, especially children and the elderly.
Topics: Animals; Equidae; Female; Humans; Milk; Milk, Human; Nutritive Value; Vitamins
PubMed: 33947032
DOI: 10.3390/nu13051509 -
Nutrients Feb 2021The gut is a pivotal organ in health and disease. The events that take place in the gut during early life contribute to the programming, shaping and tuning of distant... (Review)
Review
The gut is a pivotal organ in health and disease. The events that take place in the gut during early life contribute to the programming, shaping and tuning of distant organs, having lifelong consequences. In this context, the maternal gut plays a quintessence in programming the mammary gland to face the nutritional, microbiological, immunological, and neuroendocrine requirements of the growing infant. Subsequently, human colostrum and milk provides the infant with an impressive array of nutrients and bioactive components, including microbes, immune cells, and stem cells. Therefore, the axis linking the maternal gut, the breast, and the infant gut seems crucial for a correct infant growth and development. The aim of this article is not to perform a systematic review of the human milk components but to provide an insight of their extremely complex interactions, which render human milk a unique functional food and explain why this biological fluid still truly remains as a scientific enigma.
Topics: Breast; Breast Feeding; Child Development; Female; Humans; Infant; Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Infant, Newborn; Intestines; Maternal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Milk, Human
PubMed: 33673254
DOI: 10.3390/nu13020606 -
Food Chemistry Nov 2022Human milk lipids differ from the milk lipids of other mammals in composition and positional distribution of fatty acids. Analysis and detection technology of lipids is... (Review)
Review
Human milk lipids differ from the milk lipids of other mammals in composition and positional distribution of fatty acids. Analysis and detection technology of lipids is key to understanding milk lipids, and thus the concentrations, compositions and distribution characteristics of milk lipids are discussed. Differences between human milk lipids and their substitutes in form, composition and structure affect their digestion, absorption and function in infants. Characteristics and mimicking of human milk lipids have been intensively studied with the objective of narrowing the gap between human milk and infant formulae. Based on the existing achievements, further progress may be made by improving detection techniques, deepening knowledge of metabolic pathways and perfecting fat substitutes. This review detailed the characteristics of human milk lipids and related detection technologies with a view towards providing a clear direction for research on mimicking human milk lipids in formulae to further improve infant nutrition.
Topics: Animals; Fat Substitutes; Fatty Acids; Humans; Infant; Infant Formula; Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Mammals; Milk; Milk, Human
PubMed: 35661604
DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133332 -
Clinical and Experimental Allergy :... Oct 2021
Topics: Humans; Hypersensitivity; Milk, Human
PubMed: 34586688
DOI: 10.1111/cea.14017 -
Journal of Proteome Research Apr 2022Human milk is a dynamic biofluid, and its detailed composition receives increasing attention. While most studies focus on changes over time or differences between...
Human milk is a dynamic biofluid, and its detailed composition receives increasing attention. While most studies focus on changes over time or differences between maternal characteristics, interindividual variation receives little attention. Nevertheless, a comprehensive insight into this can help interpret human milk studies and help human milk banks provide targeted milk for recipients. This study aimed to map interindividual variation in the human milk proteome, peptidome, and metabolome and to investigate possible explanations for this variation. A set of 286 milk samples was collected from 29 mothers in the third month postpartum. Samples were pooled per mother, and proteins, peptides, and metabolites were analyzed. A substantial coefficient of variation (>100%) was observed for 4.6% and 36.2% of the proteins and peptides, respectively. In addition, using weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA), 5 protein and 11 peptide clusters were obtained, showing distinct characteristics. With this, several associations were found between the different data sets and with specific sample characteristics. This study provides insight into the dynamics of human milk protein, peptide, and metabolite composition. In addition, it will support future studies that evaluate the effect size of a parameter of interest by enabling a comparison with natural variability.
Topics: Female; Humans; Metabolome; Milk Proteins; Milk, Human; Peptides; Proteome
PubMed: 35104145
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.1c00879 -
Communications Biology May 2023Human milk is essential for infant nutrition and immunity, providing protection against infections and other immune-mediated diseases during the lactation period and...
Human milk is essential for infant nutrition and immunity, providing protection against infections and other immune-mediated diseases during the lactation period and beyond in later childhood. Milk contains a broad range of bioactive factors such as nutrients, hormones, enzymes, immunoglobulins, growth factors, cytokines, and antimicrobial factors, as well as heterogeneous populations of maternal cells. The soluble and cellular components of milk are dynamic over time to meet the needs of the growing infant. In this study, we utilize systems-approaches to define and characterize 62 analytes of the soluble component, including immunoglobulin isotypes, as well as the cellular component of human milk during the first two weeks postpartum from 36 mothers. We identify soluble immune and growth factors that are dynamic over time and could be utilized to classify milk into different phenotypic groups. We identify 24 distinct populations of both epithelial and immune cells by single-cell transcriptome analysis of 128,016 human milk cells. We found that macrophage populations have shifting inflammatory profiles during the first two weeks of lactation. This analysis provides key insights into the soluble and cellular components of human milk and serves as a substantial resource for future studies of human milk.
Topics: Infant; Female; Humans; Child; Milk, Human; Lactation; Immunoglobulins; Cytokines; Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins
PubMed: 37202439
DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-04910-2 -
Nutrients Nov 2019Human milk oligosaccharides have been recognized as an important, functional biomolecule in mothers' milk. Moreover, these oligosaccharides have been recognized as the... (Review)
Review
Human milk oligosaccharides have been recognized as an important, functional biomolecule in mothers' milk. Moreover, these oligosaccharides have been recognized as the third most abundant component of human milk, ranging from 10-15 g/L in mature milk and up to and over 20 g/L reported in colostrum. Initially, health benefits of human milk oligosaccharides were assigned via observational studies on the differences between breastfed and bottle fed infants. Later, pools of milk oligosaccharides were isolated and used in functional studies and in recent years more specific studies into structure-function relationships have identified some advanced roles for milk oligosaccharides in the healthy development of infants. In other research, the levels, diversity, and complexity of human milk oligosaccharides have been studied, showing a wide variation in results. This review gives a critical overview of challenges in the analysis of human milk oligosaccharides. In view of the myriad functions that can be assigned, often to specific structures or classes of structures, it is very relevant to assess the levels of these structures in the human milk correctly, as well as in other biological sample materials. Ultimately, the review makes a case for a comparative, inter-laboratory study on quantitative human milk oligosaccharide analysis in all relevant biological samples.
Topics: Chromatography, Ion Exchange; Humans; Infant; Mass Spectrometry; Milk, Human; Oligosaccharides
PubMed: 31698698
DOI: 10.3390/nu11112684