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PloS One 2024Recent data has characterized human milk cells with unprecedented detail and provided insight into cell populations. While such analysis of freshly expressed human milk...
Recent data has characterized human milk cells with unprecedented detail and provided insight into cell populations. While such analysis of freshly expressed human milk has been possible, studies of cell functionality within the infant have been limited to animal models. One commonly used animal model for milk research is the mouse; however, limited data are available describing the composition of mouse milk. In particular, the maternal cells of mouse milk have not been previously characterized in detail, in part due to the difficulty in collecting sufficient volumes of mouse milk. In this study, we have established a method to collect high volumes of mouse milk, isolate cells, and compare the cell counts and types to human milk. Surprisingly, we found that mouse milk cell density is three orders of magnitude higher than human milk. The cell types present in the milk of mice and humans are similar, broadly consisting of mammary epithelial cells and immune cells. These results provide a basis of comparison for mouse and human milk cells and will inform the most appropriate uses of mouse models for the study of human phenomena.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Female; Milk; Mammary Glands, Animal; Breast; Epithelial Cells; Milk, Human; Lactation
PubMed: 38295101
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0297821 -
Nutrients Oct 2022Human milk is the ideal food for newborns until the age of six months. Human milk can be defined as a dynamic living tissue, containing immunological molecules, such as... (Review)
Review
Human milk is the ideal food for newborns until the age of six months. Human milk can be defined as a dynamic living tissue, containing immunological molecules, such as immunoglobulins, supra-molecular structures, such as the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM), and even entire cells, such as the milk microbiota. The milk composition changes throughout lactation to fulfill the infant's requirements and reflect the healthy/disease status of the lactating mother. Many bioactive milk components are either soluble or bound to the MFGM. In this work, we focus on the peculiar role of the MFGM components, from their structural organization in fat globules to their route into the gastrointestinal tract. Immunometabolic differences between human and bovine MFGM components are reported and the advantages of supplementing infant formula with the MFGM are highlighted.
Topics: Infant; Female; Infant, Newborn; Humans; Lactation; Glycolipids; Lipid Droplets; Milk, Human; Milk Proteins
PubMed: 36364836
DOI: 10.3390/nu14214574 -
Dietary Intake and Milk Micronutrient Levels in Lactating Women with Full and Partial Breastfeeding.Maternal and Child Health Journal Jun 2021Micronutrient intake and status in lactating women may impact micronutrient levels in milk.
BACKGROUND
Micronutrient intake and status in lactating women may impact micronutrient levels in milk.
OBJECTIVES
This study aimed to determine the micronutrient intake and status in lactating women, and their association with micronutrient levels in human milk.
METHODS
Lactating women were enrolled at 4-6 months postpartum. A 24h food recall was examined and nutrient intakes were analyzed using INMUCAL software. Human milk samples were collected to analyze calcium, copper, iron, and zinc levels. Plasma zinc and serum ferritin levels were determined.
RESULTS
Thirty-four women participated; 19 were classified as full breastfeeding and 15 as partial breastfeeding. Mean levels of calcium, copper, iron, and zinc in human milk were 243, 0.2, 0.2, and 1.56 mg/L, respectively. The prevalence of zinc deficiency (plasma zinc < 10.7 µmol/L) was 11.8%. No lactating women had iron deficiency. Nutrient intakes were lower than the recommended amounts in 38%-70% of participants, and were not correlated with corresponding nutrient levels in human milk. Multiple linear regression showed significant association between zinc levels in human milk and plasma for lactating women with full breastfeeding (β = 0.034, 95% confidence interval [0.003, 0.067], p = 0.040).
CONCLUSIONS
Lactating women were at risk of micronutrient deficiency. There was an association between zinc levels in human milk and plasma of lactating women with full breastfeeding. As the nutritional status of lactating women influences the quality of human milk, we should encourage good nutrient intake for lactating women.
Topics: Breast Feeding; Eating; Female; Humans; Lactation; Micronutrients; Milk, Human; Nutritional Status
PubMed: 33230681
DOI: 10.1007/s10995-020-03049-4 -
Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and... 2022Bifidobacteria are early colonizers of the human neonatal gut and provide multiple health benefits to the infant, including inhibiting the growth of enteropathogens and... (Review)
Review
Bifidobacteria are early colonizers of the human neonatal gut and provide multiple health benefits to the infant, including inhibiting the growth of enteropathogens and modulating the immune system. Certain species prevail in the gut of breastfed infants due to the ability of these microorganisms to selectively forage glycans present in human milk, specifically human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) and -linked glycans. Therefore, these carbohydrates serve as promising prebiotic dietary supplements to stimulate the growth of bifidobacteria in the guts of children suffering from impaired gut microbiota development. However, the rational formulation of milk glycan-based prebiotics requires a detailed understanding of how bifidobacteria metabolize these carbohydrates. Accumulating biochemical and genomic data suggest that HMO and -glycan assimilation abilities vary remarkably within the genus, both at the species and strain levels. This review focuses on the delineation and genome-based comparative analysis of differences in respective biochemical pathways, transport systems, and associated transcriptional regulatory networks, providing a foundation for genomics-based projection of milk glycan utilization capabilities across a rapidly growing number of sequenced bifidobacterial genomes and metagenomic datasets. This analysis also highlights remaining knowledge gaps and suggests directions for future studies to optimize the formulation of milk-glycan-based prebiotics that target bifidobacteria.
Topics: Infant; Infant, Newborn; Child; Humans; Bifidobacterium; Prebiotics; Milk, Human; Polysaccharides; Carbohydrates; Genomics
PubMed: 36866565
DOI: 10.1080/10409238.2023.2182272 -
Nutrients Mar 2021Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are complex unconjugated glycans associated with positive infant health outcomes. This study has examined current knowledge of the... (Review)
Review
Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are complex unconjugated glycans associated with positive infant health outcomes. This study has examined current knowledge of the effect of maternal diet and nutritional status on the composition of HMOs in breast milk. Using the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, a comprehensive, systematic literature search was conducted using Scopus, Web of Science, Global Health (CABI), and MEDLINE. Titles and abstracts were screened independently by two reviewers against predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria and reported on maternal dietary intake ( = 3), maternal body composition indices ( = 9), and dietary supplementation interventions ( = 2). In total, data from 1388 lactating mothers (4011 milk samples) were included. Design methodologies varied substantially across studies, particularly for milk sample collection, HMO analysis, dietary and body composition assessment. Overall, this review has identified potential associations between maternal dietary intake and nutritional status and the HMO composition of human milk, though an abundance and sufficiency of evidence is lacking. Standardised procedures for human milk sample collection and HMO analysis, along with robust and validated nutrition assessment techniques, should be employed to further investigate the impact of maternal nutritional factors on HMO composition.
Topics: Female; Humans; Maternal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Milk, Human; Oligosaccharides
PubMed: 33802639
DOI: 10.3390/nu13030965 -
Journal of Agricultural and Food... Sep 2023Milk is often regarded as the gold standard for the nourishment of all mammalian offspring. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends exclusive breastfeeding for... (Review)
Review
Milk is often regarded as the gold standard for the nourishment of all mammalian offspring. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of the life of the infant, followed by a slow introduction of complementary foods to the breastfeeding routine for a period of approximately 2 years, whenever this is possible ( ; WHO, 2003). One of the most abundant components in all mammals' milk, which is associated with important health benefits, is the oligosaccharides. The milk oligosaccharides (MOS) of humans and other mammals differ in terms of their concentration and diversity. Among those, goat milk contains more oligosaccharides (MOS) than other domesticated dairy animals, as well as a greater range of structures. This review summarizes the biological functions of MOS found in both human and goat milk to identify the possible biological relevance of MOS in human health and development. Based on the existing literature, seven biological functions of MOS were identified, namely, MOS action as prebiotics, immune modulators, and pathogen traps; their modulation of intestinal cells; protective effect against necrotizing enterocolitis; improved brain development; and positive effects on stressor exposure. Overall, goat milk is a viable alternate supply of functional MOS that could be employed in a newborn formula.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Infant, Newborn; Animals, Domestic; Goats; Infant Formula; Infant Health; Mammals; Milk; Milk, Human; Oligosaccharides
PubMed: 37691562
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c02194 -
Journal of Agricultural and Food... Nov 2020Human milk is considered the golden standard in infant nutrition. Free oligosaccharides in human milk provide important health benefits. These oligosaccharides function... (Comparative Study)
Comparative Study Review
Human milk is considered the golden standard in infant nutrition. Free oligosaccharides in human milk provide important health benefits. These oligosaccharides function as prebiotics, immune modulators, and pathogen inhibitors and were found to improve barrier function in the gut. Infant formulas nowadays often contain prebiotics but lack the specific functions of human milk oligosaccharides (hMOS). Milk from domesticated animals also contains milk oligosaccharides but at much lower levels and with less diversity. Goat milk contains significantly more oligosaccharides (gMOS) than bovine (bMOS) or sheep (sMOS) milk and also has a larger diversity of structures. This review summarizes structural studies, revealing a diversity of up to 77 annotated gMOS structures with almost 40 structures fully characterized. Quantitative studies of goat milk oligosaccharides range from 60 to 350 mg/L in mature milk and from 200 to 650 mg/L in colostrum. These levels are clearly lower than in human milk (5-20 g/L) but higher than in other domesticated dairy animals, e.g., bovine (30-60 mg/L) and sheep (20-40 mg/L). Finally, the review focuses on demonstrated and potential functionalities of gMOS. Some studies have shown anti-inflammatory effects of mixtures enriched in gMOS. Goat MOS also display prebiotic potential, particularly in stimulating growth of bifidobacteria preferentially. Although functional studies of gMOS are still limited, several structures are also found in human milk and have known functions as immune modulators and pathogen inhibitors. In conclusion, goat milk constitutes a promising alternative source for milk oligosaccharides, which can be used in infant formula.
Topics: Animals; Cattle; Goats; Humans; Milk; Milk, Human; Oligosaccharides
PubMed: 33141570
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c03766 -
Clinics in Perinatology Jun 2022
Review
Topics: Humans; Infant; Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Infant, Newborn; Infant, Premature; Milk, Human
PubMed: 35659097
DOI: 10.1016/j.clp.2022.02.014 -
JPEN. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral... Nov 2023This study quantified the displacement of human milk by commercial human milk fortifiers (HMFs) and infant formulas.
BACKGROUND
This study quantified the displacement of human milk by commercial human milk fortifiers (HMFs) and infant formulas.
METHODS
Commercial liquid HMFs and powder infant formulas were added to pasteurized pooled donor human milk in triplicate, stirred, and weighed. The difference in weight between unfortified and fortified human milk at 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, and 30 kcal/ounce was calculated.
RESULTS
The displacement of human milk by liquid HMFs and powder infant formulas and powder HMF was highly associated with energy density. A human milk-derived HMF displaced significantly more human milk when compared with bovine milk-derived HMFs at equivalent energy densities. Similarly, powder infant formulas displaced less human milk when compared with a powder HMF, and the addition of hydrolyzed powder infant formulas resulted in less human milk displacement when compared with nonhydrolyzed powder infant formulas.
CONCLUSIONS
The displacement of human milk by commercial liquid HMFs and infant formulas must be considered when selecting a fortifying strategy.
Topics: Infant; Humans; Milk, Human; Powders; Dietary Supplements; Infant Formula
PubMed: 37488685
DOI: 10.1002/jpen.2553 -
NeoReviews Dec 2020Human milk contains various bioactive substances including hormones, immunoglobulins, enzymes, and growth factors in addition to its macro- and micronutrients. It has... (Review)
Review
Human milk contains various bioactive substances including hormones, immunoglobulins, enzymes, and growth factors in addition to its macro- and micronutrients. It has been suggested that human milk is a vehicle of communication between the maternal and infant immune systems, providing passive protection as well as direct active immunomodulation. Human milk protects newborns against pathogens by acting directly on multiple physiologic systems. Bioactive and immunologic factors regulate the infant's immune, metabolic, and microbiome systems. Breastfeeding protects infants in all socioeconomic groups, showing a pattern of protective dose/duration-response effects. This review summarizes the immune components and immunologic properties of human milk and provides an update of their potential implications in the neonatal population.
Topics: Breast Feeding; Female; Humans; Infant, Newborn; Microbiota; Milk, Human
PubMed: 33262207
DOI: 10.1542/neo.21-12-e809