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Carbohydrate Polymers May 2024Milk oligosaccharides (MOs), complex carbohydrates prevalent in human breast milk, play a vital role in infant nutrition. Serving as prebiotics, they inhibit pathogen... (Review)
Review
Milk oligosaccharides (MOs), complex carbohydrates prevalent in human breast milk, play a vital role in infant nutrition. Serving as prebiotics, they inhibit pathogen adherence, modulate the immune system, and support newborn brain development. Notably, MOs demonstrate significant variations in concentration and composition, both across different species and within the same species. These characteristics of MOs lead to several compelling questions: (i) What distinct beneficial functions do MOs offer and how do the functions vary along with their structural differences? (ii) In what ways do MOs in human milk differ from those in other mammals, and what factors drive these unique profiles? (iii) What are the emerging applications of MOs, particularly in the context of their incorporation into infant formula? This review delves into the structural characteristics, quantification methods, and species-specific concentration differences of MOs. It highlights the critical role of human MOs in infant growth and their potential applications, providing substantial evidence to enhance infant health and development.
Topics: Infant, Newborn; Animals; Female; Humans; Milk; Milk, Human; Oligosaccharides; Infant Formula; Prebiotics; Mammals
PubMed: 38431414
DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.121911 -
Proceedings of the National Academy of... Apr 2022Human breast milk (hBM) is a dynamic fluid that contains millions of cells, but their identities and phenotypic properties are poorly understood. We generated and...
Human breast milk (hBM) is a dynamic fluid that contains millions of cells, but their identities and phenotypic properties are poorly understood. We generated and analyzed single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) data to characterize the transcriptomes of cells from hBM across lactational time from 3 to 632 d postpartum in 15 donors. We found that the majority of cells in hBM are lactocytes, a specialized epithelial subset, and that cell-type frequencies shift over the course of lactation, yielding greater epithelial diversity at later points. Analysis of lactocytes reveals a continuum of cell states characterized by transcriptional changes in hormone-, growth factor-, and milk production-related pathways. Generalized additive models suggest that one subcluster, LC1 epithelial cells, increases as a function of time postpartum, daycare attendance, and the use of hormonal birth control. We identify several subclusters of macrophages in hBM that are enriched for tolerogenic functions, possibly playing a role in protecting the mammary gland during lactation. Our description of the cellular components of breast milk, their association with maternal–infant dyad metadata, and our quantification of alterations at the gene and pathway levels provide a detailed longitudinal picture of hBM cells across lactational time. This work paves the way for future investigations of how a potential division of cellular labor and differential hormone regulation might be leveraged therapeutically to support healthy lactation and potentially aid in milk production.
Topics: Breast Feeding; Female; Gene Expression Profiling; Humans; Lactation; Milk, Human; RNA-Seq; Transcriptome
PubMed: 35377806
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2121720119 -
Critical Reviews in Biotechnology Jun 2022Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) have recently attracted ever-increasing interest because of their versatile physiological functions. In HMOs, two tetrasaccharides,... (Review)
Review
Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) have recently attracted ever-increasing interest because of their versatile physiological functions. In HMOs, two tetrasaccharides, lacto--tetraose (LNT) and lacto--neotetraose (LNnT), constitute the essential components, each accounting 6% (w/w) of total HMOs. Also, they serve as core structures for fucosylation and sialylation, generating functional derivatives and elongation generating longer chains of core structures. LNT, LNnT, and their fucosylated and/or sialylated derivatives account for more than 30% (w/w) of total HMOs. For derivatization, LNT and LNnT can be modified into a series of complex fucosylated and/or sialylated HMOs by transferring fucose residues at 1,2-, 1,3-, and 1,3/4-linkage and/or sialic acid residues at 2,3- and 2,6-linkage. Such structural diversity allows these HMOs to possess great commercial value and an application potential in the food and pharmaceutical industries. In this review, we first elaborate the physiological functions of these tetrasaccharides and derivatives. Next, we extensively review recent developments in the biosynthesis of LNT, LNnT, and their derivatives and by employing advanced enzymatic reaction systems and metabolic engineering strategies. Finally, future perspectives in the synthesis of these HMOs using enzymatic and metabolic engineering approaches are presented.
Topics: Glycosylation; Humans; Metabolic Engineering; Milk, Human; Oligosaccharides
PubMed: 34346270
DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2021.1944973 -
Carbohydrate Polymers Sep 2023Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) have attracted considerable attention due to their unique role in boosting infant health. Among the HMOs, lacto-N-tetraose (LNT) is a... (Review)
Review
Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) have attracted considerable attention due to their unique role in boosting infant health. Among the HMOs, lacto-N-tetraose (LNT) is a significant constituent associated with various health benefits, such as prebiotic effects, antiadhesive antimicrobials, antiviral protection, and immune modulators. LNT has received a "Generally Recognized as Safe" status by the American Food and Drug Administration and was approved as a food ingredient for infant formula. However, the limited availability of LNT poses a major challenge for its application in food and medicine. In this review, we first explored the physiological functions of LNT. Next, we describe several synthesis methods for production of LNT, including chemical, enzymatic, and cell factory approaches, and summarize the pivotal research results. Finally, challenges and opportunities for the large-scale synthesis of LNT were discussed.
Topics: Infant; Humans; Milk, Human; Oligosaccharides; Infant Formula
PubMed: 37321746
DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2023.121067 -
Journal of Agricultural and Food... Jul 2022In the present study, the different lipidomes between human milk and ruminant milk were compared. The 471, 376, 467, and 87 differential lipids were identified in human...
In the present study, the different lipidomes between human milk and ruminant milk were compared. The 471, 376, 467, and 87 differential lipids were identified in human versus cow, goat, sheep, and camel groups, respectively. According to multivariate statistical analysis, lipids in human and camel milk were closer but differed from other milk. The distributions of long-chain and polyunsaturated fatty acids of triglycerides (TGs), the proportions of functional TGs (OPO, OPL, and PPO), and many kinds of phospholipids (PLs) (PS, PI, GD, GM3, and Cer) in human milk were similar to those in camel milk. The similar structure of TGs and proportion of PLs in human milk to camel milk might contribute to their similar digestion and bioactivity properties. Camel milk could be considered as a new resource of lipid base for infant formula. Minor PLs should also be considered for designing formula. Our results provide a new sight for humanized lipids in infant formula.
Topics: Animals; Camelus; Cattle; Fatty Acids; Female; Humans; Lipidomics; Milk; Milk, Human; Phospholipids; Ruminants; Sheep; Triglycerides
PubMed: 35849131
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c02122 -
Expert Review of Proteomics 2019: Among the OMICS technologies, that have emerged in recent years, metabolomics has allowed relevant step forwards in clinical research. Several improvements in disease... (Review)
Review
: Among the OMICS technologies, that have emerged in recent years, metabolomics has allowed relevant step forwards in clinical research. Several improvements in disease diagnosis and clinical management have been permitted, even in neonatology. Among potentially evaluable biofluids, breast milk (BM) results are highly interesting, representing a fluid of conjunction between mothers newborns, describing their interaction.: in this review, updating a previous review article, we discuss research articles and reviews on BM metabolomics and found in MEDLINE using metabolomics, breast milk, neonatal nutrition, breastfeeding, human milk composition, and preterm neonates as keywords.: Our research group has a profound interest in metabolomics research. In 2012, we published the first metabolomic analysis on BM samples, reporting interesting data on its composition and relevant differences with formula milk (FM), useful to improve FM composition. As confirmed by successive studies, such technology can detect the specific BM composition and its dependence on several variables, including lactation stage, gestational age, maternal or environmental conditions. Moreover, since BM contaminants or drug levels can be detected, metabolomics also results useful to determine BM safety. These are only a few practical applications of BM analysis, which will be reviewed in this paper.
Topics: Breast Feeding; Female; Humans; Infant Formula; Infant, Newborn; Metabolomics; Milk, Human; Mothers; Nutritional Sciences
PubMed: 31825672
DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2019.1703679 -
Environment International Jun 2022Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are non-degradable, man-made-chemicals with an elimination half-life of multiple years, causing accumulation in the...
BACKGROUND AND AIMS
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are non-degradable, man-made-chemicals with an elimination half-life of multiple years, causing accumulation in the environment and humans with potential harmful effects. However, longitudinal PFAS levels in human milk, daily PFAS intake and the association with infant plasma PFAS levels have never been reported. We investigated longitudinal PFOA and PFOS levels in human milk and the daily PFAS intake through infant feeding in the first 3 months of life, the most important determinants and the correlation with PFAS plasma levels at age 3 months and 2 years.
METHODS
In 372 healthy term-born Dutch infants, we determined PFOA and PFOS levels in human milk given at age 1 and 3 months, in 6 infant formula brands and in infant plasma at 3 months and 2 years, using liquid-chromatography-electrospray-ionization-tandem-mass-spectrometry(LC-ESI-MS/MS). We studied the associations between daily PFAS intake and predictive characteristics by multiple regression models.
RESULTS
PFOA and PFOS levels in human milk decreased between 1 and 3 months after delivery, regardless whether breastfeeding was given exclusively(EBF) or in combination with formula feeding. PFOA and PFOS could not be detected in any formula feeding. Daily PFAS intake(ng/kg) was highest in EBF-infants. Higher amount of human milk, older maternal age, lower parity and first-time breastfeeding were associated with higher daily intake. Daily PFAS intake in early life was strongly correlated with PFAS plasma levels at age 3 months and 2 years(R = 0.642-0.875, p < 0.001).
CONCLUSIONS
Human milk contains PFOA and PFOS, in contrast to formula feeding. Daily PFOA and PFOS intake in early life is highest in exclusively breastfed infants and it is highly correlated with infant's plasma levels throughout infancy. Our findings show that breastfeeding is an important PFAS exposure pathway in the first months of life, with unknown but potential adverse effects. Knowing the important health benefits of breastfeeding, our findings warrant more research about the health outcomes in later life.
Topics: Alkanesulfonic Acids; Breast Feeding; Environmental Pollutants; Female; Fluorocarbons; Humans; Infant; Milk, Human; Pregnancy; Tandem Mass Spectrometry
PubMed: 35524998
DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107274 -
Maternal & Child Nutrition Jan 2021Exposure to unsafe level of aflatoxin in early life may lead to growth faltering. However, the extent of contamination of breast milk and complementary foods is poorly...
Exposure to unsafe level of aflatoxin in early life may lead to growth faltering. However, the extent of contamination of breast milk and complementary foods is poorly examined. We determined aflatoxin M (AFM ) and B (AFB ) contamination of human breast milk and cereal-based cooked complementary foods, respectively, among households having children 6-23 months of age in Sidama zone, southern Ethiopia. Data were collected through two cross-sectional surveys implemented in the wet (n = 180) and dry (n = 180) seasons. Eligible households (n = 360) were recruited from three agroecological zones (lowland, midland and highland, each with sample size of 120) using a multistage sampling technique. AFB and AFM levels were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests were performed to compare aflatoxin levels between seasons and across the agroecological zones. Among 360 breast milk samples tested, 64.4% had detectable AFM and 5.3% exceeded the 0.025 parts per billion (ppb) limit set by the European Union for infant milk. The median AFM in the lowlands was significantly higher than in the other agroecological settings (P < 0.001). By season, AFM was higher in breast milk samples collected in the dry season (P = 0.041). AFB was detected in 96.4% of the food samples tested, and 95.0% had concentration exceeding the permissible European Union limit of 0.1 ppb. The median AFB was significantly higher in the lowland (P = 0.002), but there was no difference between the seasons (P = 0.386). The study indicated that, in southern Ethiopia, foods intended for infants are heavily contaminated with AFB . Contamination of breast milk is also a significant health concern.
Topics: Aflatoxins; Animals; Child; Cross-Sectional Studies; Ethiopia; Female; Food Contamination; Humans; Infant; Milk; Milk, Human
PubMed: 32954680
DOI: 10.1111/mcn.13081 -
Journal of Perinatology : Official... May 2024Freeze-drying (FD), or lyophilization, is commonly used to preserve foods. FD offers potential to create a human milk-derived human milk fortifier, and an alternative to... (Review)
Review
Freeze-drying (FD), or lyophilization, is commonly used to preserve foods. FD offers potential to create a human milk-derived human milk fortifier, and an alternative to freeze-storing human milk. However, processing human milk is known to affect its components. This scoping review explores the effect of FD on the; macronutrient, micronutrient, vitamin, bioactive components, microbes and anti-microbial factors in human milk, and studies where lyophilized human milk has been given to newborn infants. 48 articles were identified after full text review. FD human milk reduces the fat globule size and as well as the quantity of enzymes, vitamin C and immunoglobulin. Common serum electrolyte disturbances have been reported when preterm infants' are fed FD human milk however it appears a promising method to avoid exposure of preterm infants' to cows' milk. Due to limited data, further studies exploring the safety and efficacy of FD human milk in preterm infants are needed.
Topics: Humans; Milk, Human; Freeze Drying; Infant, Premature; Infant, Newborn; Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena
PubMed: 38225373
DOI: 10.1038/s41372-023-01861-8 -
Critical Reviews in Food Science and... 2022The lipid phase of infant formulas is generally composed of plant-based lipids structured with a high concentration of palmitic acid (C16:0) esterified at the sn-2... (Review)
Review
The lipid phase of infant formulas is generally composed of plant-based lipids structured with a high concentration of palmitic acid (C16:0) esterified at the sn-2 position of triacylglycerol since this structure favors the absorption and metabolism of fatty acids. Palm oil is commonly used to make up the lipid phase of infant formulas due to its high concentration of palmitic acid and solids profile and melting point similar to human milk fat. However, the addition of palm oil to infant formulas has been associated with the presence of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters, a group of glycerol-derived chemical contaminants (1,2,3-propanotriol), potentially toxic, formed during the refining process of vegetable oil. Bovine milk fat obtained from the complex biosynthesis in the mammary gland has potential as a technological alternative to replace palm oil and its fractions for the production of structured lipids to be used in infant formulas. Its application as a substitute is due to its composition and structure, which resembles breast milk fat, and essentially to the preferential distribution pattern of palmitic acids (C16:0) with approximately 85% distributed at the sn-1 and sn-2 position of triacylglycerol. This review will address the relationship between the chemical composition and structure of lipids in infant nutrition, as well as the potential of bovine milk fat as a basis for the production of structured lipids in substitution for the lipid phase of vegetable origin currently used in infant formulas.
Topics: Animals; Fatty Acids; Female; Humans; Infant; Infant Formula; Milk; Milk, Human; Palmitic Acid; Triglycerides
PubMed: 32876475
DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2020.1813073