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The Lancet. Infectious Diseases Aug 2019
Topics: Animals; Disease Outbreaks; Humans; Mpox (monkeypox); Nigeria; Rinderpest; Smallpox
PubMed: 31345445
DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30358-5 -
Frontiers in Immunology 2020As pattern recognition receptors, cytosolic DNA sensors quickly induce an effective innate immune response. Poxvirus, a large DNA virus, is capable of evading the host... (Review)
Review
As pattern recognition receptors, cytosolic DNA sensors quickly induce an effective innate immune response. Poxvirus, a large DNA virus, is capable of evading the host antiviral innate immune response. In this review, we summarize the latest studies on how poxvirus is sensed by the host innate immune system and how poxvirus-encoded proteins antagonize DNA sensors. A comprehensive understanding of the interplay between poxvirus and DNA-sensing antiviral immune responses of the host will contribute to the development of new antiviral therapies and vaccines in the future.
Topics: Animals; Biomarkers; DNA, Viral; DNA-Activated Protein Kinase; DNA-Binding Proteins; Disease Resistance; Host-Pathogen Interactions; Humans; Immunity, Innate; Nuclear Proteins; Nucleotidyltransferases; Phosphoproteins; Poxviridae; Poxviridae Infections; Signal Transduction; Toll-Like Receptor 9
PubMed: 32983084
DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01637 -
The British Journal of Ophthalmology Dec 2022The 2022 outbreak of monkeypox is of worldwide significance. There has been a rapid escalation in case numbers despite efforts to contain it and the WHO has declared it... (Review)
Review
The 2022 outbreak of monkeypox is of worldwide significance. There has been a rapid escalation in case numbers despite efforts to contain it and the WHO has declared it a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. To date, over 51 257 laboratory-confirmed cases have been reported, the majority in non-endemic countries, with 3279 in the UK. It is vital for ophthalmologists to understand this disease and the risk it poses. Human monkeypox is a zoonotic disease caused by the monkeypox virus, a double-stranded DNA virus in the genus of the family. Other orthopoxviruses include variola (smallpox), cowpox and vaccinia; all of which have significant ocular sequelae. Transmission occurs from an animal reservoir (unknown, likely rodents) to a human host, leading to secondary human-to-human spread. During the recent outbreak, a higher incidence has been found in gay, bisexual or other men who have sex with men. Clinical diagnosis may be challenging as presentation can mimic common ophthalmic diseases. A thorough history is key to identifying potential cases. Ophthalmic manifestations may include preseptal cellulitis, conjunctivitis and keratitis. The oral antiviral agent tecovirimat, which was developed to treat smallpox, is the mainstay of treatment. Trifluorothymidine (trifluridine) eye-drops can be used for ophthalmic involvement. In addition, smallpox vaccines have provided some cross-immunity. Ocular monkeypox should be managed by infectious diseases specialists, in consultation with ophthalmologists to provide the expertise needed to treat potentially vision-threatening complications. This outbreak highlights the need for healthcare providers to implement appropriate infection control measures and be familiar with the identification and treatment of both cutaneous and ocular disease.
Topics: Animals; Male; Humans; Mpox (monkeypox); Smallpox; Communicable Diseases, Emerging; Homosexuality, Male; Sexual and Gender Minorities; Orthopoxvirus; Variola virus
PubMed: 36216412
DOI: 10.1136/bjo-2022-322268 -
Transfusion Medicine (Oxford, England) Dec 2022The recent emergence of monkeypox virus (MPXV) in the UK and elsewhere is of urgent public health concern. Several aspects of MPXV epidemiology and pathogenesis,... (Review)
Review
The recent emergence of monkeypox virus (MPXV) in the UK and elsewhere is of urgent public health concern. Several aspects of MPXV epidemiology and pathogenesis, including its systemic spread and viraemia during acute infection, furthermore represent an important potential threat to the safety of blood transfusion and organ transplantation. Reported infections in the UK have been exponentially increasing over the last 2 months, with 1552 reported cases in the UK by 7th July 2022. This is likely to be considerable underestimate given current limitations in diagnostic capacity and clinical diagnoses hampered by its similar disease presentations to other causes of rash and genitourinary disease. While MPXV infections are currently most widespread in gay, bisexual or other men who have sex with men, wider spread of MPXV outside defined risk groups for infection may prevent identification of infection risk in donors. While typically mild disease outcomes have been reported in UK cases, case fatality rates ranging from 1% to over 10% are reported for different MPXV strains in its source area in sub-Saharan Africa. Recipients of blood components and organs transplant, especially those who are immunosuppressed, may reproduce the greater systemic spread and morbidity of those infected through percutaneous routes. There is a potential risk of MPXV transmission and severe disease outcomes in blood and transplant recipients. In addition to current risk assessments performed in the UK and exclusion of donors with recent MPXV exposure, determining viraemia frequencies in donors and directly evaluating transmission risk would be of considerable value in assessing whether MPXV nucleic acid screening should be implemented.
Topics: Male; Humans; Mpox (monkeypox); Viremia; Homosexuality, Male; Sexual and Gender Minorities; Monkeypox virus; Blood Transfusion
PubMed: 36134432
DOI: 10.1111/tme.12918 -
Archives of Pathology & Laboratory... Jul 2023Before its eradication, the smallpox virus was a significant cause of poor obstetric outcomes, including maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. The mpox (monkeypox)...
CONTEXT.—
Before its eradication, the smallpox virus was a significant cause of poor obstetric outcomes, including maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. The mpox (monkeypox) virus is now the most pathogenic member of the Orthopoxvirus genus infecting humans. The 2022 global mpox outbreak has focused attention on its potential effects during pregnancy.
OBJECTIVE.—
To understand the comparative effects of different poxvirus infections on pregnancy, including mpox virus, variola virus, vaccinia virus, and cowpox virus. The impact on the pregnant individual, fetus, and placenta will be examined, with particular attention to the occurrence of intrauterine vertical transmission and congenital infection.
DATA SOURCES.—
The data are obtained from the authors' cases and from various published sources, including early historical information and contemporary publications.
CONCLUSIONS.—
Smallpox caused maternal and perinatal death, with numerous cases reported of intrauterine transmission. In endemic African countries, mpox has also affected pregnant individuals, with up to a 75% perinatal case fatality rate. Since the start of the 2022 mpox outbreak, increasing numbers of pregnant women have been infected with the virus. A detailed description is given of the congenital mpox syndrome in a stillborn fetus, resulting from maternal-fetal transmission and placental infection, and the potential mechanisms of intrauterine infection are discussed. Other poxviruses, notably vaccinia virus and, in 1 case, cowpox virus, can also cause perinatal infection. Based on the historical evidence of poxvirus infections, mpox remains a threat to the pregnant population, and it can be expected that additional cases will occur in the future.
Topics: Infant, Newborn; Female; Humans; Pregnancy; Monkeypox virus; Mpox (monkeypox); Placenta; Orthopoxvirus; Variola virus; Poxviridae Infections; Vaccinia virus
PubMed: 36857117
DOI: 10.5858/arpa.2022-0520-SA -
Preventive Veterinary Medicine Aug 2020Capripox viruses are the causative agents of important animal diseases in cattle (Lumpy Skin Disease), sheep (Sheeppox) and goats (Goatpox) with severe socio-economic... (Review)
Review
Capripox viruses are the causative agents of important animal diseases in cattle (Lumpy Skin Disease), sheep (Sheeppox) and goats (Goatpox) with severe socio-economic impact in case of wide scale outbreaks. Therefore there is a constant need for adequate diagnostic tools. The assays must be fit-for-purpose to identify the virus quickly and correctly and to be useful for surveillance and monitoring at different stages of an epidemic. Different diagnostic performance characteristics are required depending on the situation and the test purpose. The need for high throughput, high specificity/sensitivity and the capability for differentiating field virus strains from vaccine strains drives the development of new and better assays preferably with an advantageous cost-benefit balance. This review aims to look at existing and new virological and serological diagnostic tools used in the control against diseases caused by Capripox viruses.
Topics: Animals; Capripoxvirus; Cattle; Goat Diseases; Goats; Lumpy Skin Disease; Lumpy skin disease virus; Poxviridae Infections; Sensitivity and Specificity; Serologic Tests; Sheep; Sheep Diseases; Sheep, Domestic
PubMed: 31196699
DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2019.104704 -
Infection Dec 2022The non-endemic monkeypox outbreak in 2022 is the largest outside of Africa in recorded history. The assumption is that monkeypox, an emerging zoonotic disease, has a... (Review)
Review
The non-endemic monkeypox outbreak in 2022 is the largest outside of Africa in recorded history. The assumption is that monkeypox, an emerging zoonotic disease, has a high potential for epidemic spread with increased human outbreaks in recent years. The vaccinia-based smallpox vaccination has been discontinued globally for more than 40 years. Additionally, there are now more vulnerable populations. Populations who have not received the vaccine are more susceptible to monkeypox viral infection, while smallpox cannot spontaneously recur. As a member of the orthopoxvirus family and because of its potential for rapid adaptation in humans, the monkeypox virus (MPXV) has emerged as a pathogen that needs further study. Many non-endemic countries with no prior history of travel to an endemic region had increased global health concerns after the finding of MPXV cases in May 2022. Here, we summarize the clinical significance of MPXV and its unique infection characteristics. Finally, this review sheds light on worries regarding its resurgence in global health.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Monkeypox virus; Mpox (monkeypox); Smallpox; Zoonoses; Vaccination
PubMed: 36192607
DOI: 10.1007/s15010-022-01935-3 -
Allergy and Asthma Proceedings Nov 2022Human monkeypox is a zoonosis caused by the monkeypox virus, an orthopoxvirus and close relative of variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox. The disease was...
Human monkeypox is a zoonosis caused by the monkeypox virus, an orthopoxvirus and close relative of variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox. The disease was first reported in central Africa in 1970, where it continues to be endemic and has historically affected some of the poorest and most marginalized communities in the world. The condition has recently attracted global attention due to >14,000 cases, including five deaths, reported by the World Health Organization, and a total of 5189 confirmed monkeypox cases in the United States reported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as of July 29, 2022. On July 23, 2022, the World Health Organization declared the current monkeypox outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. The purpose of the present report was to review the epidemiology of monkeypox viral infection; its clinical manifestations; and current recommendations for diagnosis, treatment, and use of vaccines for prevention of the disease, with a focus on those aspects that have particular relevance to the allergist/immunologist. Monkeypox was discovered in the early 1970s and, for years, has been well described by researchers in west and central Africa, where the disease has been present for decades. Although this outbreak thus far has mostly affected men who have sex with men, it is possible that the disease could become endemic and could begin spreading in settings where there is close physical contact, which is how the virus is transmitted. Monkeypox is a different viral infection from the coronavirus. Unlike the coronavirus, which is an extremely contagious respiratory pathogen, monkeypox is primarily transmitted through body fluids and/or prolonged skin-to-skin contact. Although the control of monkeypox will require renewed efforts and resources, we have learned much from the past and have the tools to stop this virus from becoming yet another serious illness with which Americans have to contend. The allergist/immunologist can play a significant role.
Topics: Male; Humans; United States; Monkeypox virus; Mpox (monkeypox); Allergists; Homosexuality, Male; Sexual and Gender Minorities
PubMed: 36335412
DOI: 10.2500/aap.2022.43.220075 -
International Journal of Environmental... Nov 2022Monkeypox is a zoonotic infectious disease belonging to the orthopoxvirus family that has predominantly occurred in West and Central Africa since it was initially... (Review)
Review
Monkeypox is a zoonotic infectious disease belonging to the orthopoxvirus family that has predominantly occurred in West and Central Africa since it was initially discovered in 1958. In May 2022, a global outbreak of monkeypox began to occur on an international scale, with case numbers still rising as this review is being written. This mini review sought to analyze the existing literature on monkeypox published from 2017 onward to provide epidemiological context to current outbreaks. PubMed and Google Scholar databases were used to gather both peer-reviewed and grey literature on the routes of transmission, case definitions, clinical characteristics, diagnosis, management, prevention, vaccination, and epidemiology of monkeypox. Epidemiological studies indicate that the age of onset of monkeypox has increased over time. Antivirals, such as Tecovirimat and Brincidofovir, are recommended to manage confirmed cases of monkeypox. Although mass vaccination is not currently recommended, the smallpox vaccine can be used as a preventative measure for at-risk groups, such as men who have sex with men and frontline healthcare workers. Further peer-reviewed research addressing animal reservoirs and sexual transmission dynamics is needed.
Topics: Humans; Animals; Male; Orthopoxvirus; Homosexuality, Male; Sexual and Gender Minorities; Mpox (monkeypox); Zoonoses; Communicable Diseases
PubMed: 36497758
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192315684 -
Clinical Microbiology and Infection :... Dec 2023The 2022 mpox outbreak drew global attention to this neglected pathogen. While most of the world was taken by surprise, some countries have seen this pathogen emerge and... (Review)
Review
BACKGROUND
The 2022 mpox outbreak drew global attention to this neglected pathogen. While most of the world was taken by surprise, some countries have seen this pathogen emerge and become endemic several decades prior to this epidemic.
OBJECTIVES
This narrative review provides an overview of mpox epidemiology since its discovery through the 2022 global outbreak.
SOURCES
We searched PubMed for relevant literature about mpox epidemiology and transmission through 28 February 2023.
CONTENT
The emergence of human mpox is intertwined with the eradication of smallpox and the cessation of the global smallpox vaccination campaign. The first human clade I and II monkeypox virus (MPXV) infections were reported as zoonoses in Central and West Africa, respectively, around 1970 with sporadic infections reported throughout the rest of the decade. Over the next five decades, Clade I MPXV was more common and caused outbreaks of increasing size and frequency, mainly in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Clade II MPXV was rarely observed, until its re-emergence and ongoing transmission in Nigeria, since 2017. Both clades showed a shift from zoonotic to human-to-human transmission, with potential transmission through sexual contact being observed in Nigeria. In 2022, clade II MPXV caused a large human outbreak which to date has caused over 86,000 cases in 110 countries, with strong evidence of transmission during sexual contact. By February 2023, the global epidemic has waned in most countries, but endemic regions continue to suffer from mpox.
IMPLICATIONS
The changing epidemiology of mpox demonstrates how neglected zoonosis turned into a global health threat within a few decades. Thus, mpox pathophysiology and transmission dynamics need to be further investigated, and preventive and therapeutic interventions need to be evaluated. Outbreak response systems need to be strengthened and sustained in endemic regions to reduce the global threat of mpox.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Smallpox; Mpox (monkeypox); Variola virus; Zoonoses; Disease Outbreaks
PubMed: 37574113
DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2023.08.008