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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal... Mar 2024Across human societies, people are sometimes willing to punish norm violators. Such punishment can take the form of revenge from victims, seemingly altruistic... (Review)
Review
Across human societies, people are sometimes willing to punish norm violators. Such punishment can take the form of revenge from victims, seemingly altruistic intervention from third parties, or legitimized sanctioning from institutional representatives. Although prior work has documented cross-cultural regularities in norm enforcement, substantial variation exists in the prevalence and forms of punishment across societies. Such cross-societal variation may arise from universal psychological mechanisms responding to different socio-ecological conditions, or from cultural evolutionary processes, resulting in different norm enforcement systems. To date, empirical evidence from comparative studies across diverse societies has remained disconnected, owing to a lack of interdisciplinary integration and a prevalent tendency of empirical studies to focus on different underpinnings of variation in norm enforcement. To provide a more complete view of the shared and unique aspects of punishment across societies, we review prior research in anthropology, economics and psychology, and take a first step towards integrating the plethora of socio-ecological and cultural factors proposed to explain cross-societal variation in norm enforcement. We conclude by discussing how future cross-societal research can use diverse methodologies to illuminate key questions on the domain-specificity of punishment, the diversity of tactics supporting social norms, and their role in processes of norm change. This article is part of the theme issue 'Social norm change: drivers and consequences'.
Topics: Humans; Altruism; Cultural Evolution; Punishment; Social Norms
PubMed: 38244602
DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0034 -
Nature Human Behaviour Sep 2022Third-party punishment of antisocial others is unique to humans and seems to be universal across cultures. However, its emergence in ontogeny remains unknown. We...
Third-party punishment of antisocial others is unique to humans and seems to be universal across cultures. However, its emergence in ontogeny remains unknown. We developed a participatory cognitive paradigm using gaze-contingency techniques, in which infants can use their gaze to affect agents displayed on a monitor. In this paradigm, fixation on an agent triggers the event of a stone crushing the agent. Throughout five experiments (total N = 120), we show that eight-month-old infants punished antisocial others. Specifically, infants increased their selective looks at the aggressor after watching aggressive interactions. Additionally, three control experiments excluded alternative interpretations of their selective gaze, suggesting that punishment-related decision-making influenced looking behaviour. These findings indicate that a disposition for third-party punishment of antisocial others emerges in early infancy and emphasize the importance of third-party punishment for human cooperation. This behavioural tendency may be a human trait acquired over the course of evolution.
Topics: Aggression; Antisocial Personality Disorder; Humans; Infant; Personality; Punishment
PubMed: 35680993
DOI: 10.1038/s41562-022-01354-2 -
Current Opinion in Psychology Feb 2022Direct and indirect reciprocity are two fundamental mechanisms that promote prosocial behavior within groups and across societies. Here, we review recent work that... (Review)
Review
Direct and indirect reciprocity are two fundamental mechanisms that promote prosocial behavior within groups and across societies. Here, we review recent work that illustrates how a (direct and indirect) reciprocity framework can illuminate our understanding of several factors related to prosocial behavior - namely group membership, gossip, and third-party punishment. We propose that each of these factors can promote prosocial behavior via proximate psychological mechanisms related to direct and indirect reciprocity: reputational concern, expectations, and anticipation of future interaction. Finally, we discuss the implications of adopting such a framework and highlight a number of avenues for future research.
Topics: Altruism; Communication; Cooperative Behavior; Humans; Punishment
PubMed: 34481332
DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.08.003 -
Lancet (London, England) Jul 2021Physical punishment is increasingly viewed as a form of violence that harms children. This narrative review summarises the findings of 69 prospective longitudinal... (Review)
Review
Physical punishment is increasingly viewed as a form of violence that harms children. This narrative review summarises the findings of 69 prospective longitudinal studies to inform practitioners and policy makers about physical punishment's outcomes. Our review identified seven key themes. First, physical punishment consistently predicts increases in child behaviour problems over time. Second, physical punishment is not associated with positive outcomes over time. Third, physical punishment increases the risk of involvement with child protective services. Fourth, the only evidence of children eliciting physical punishment is for externalising behaviour. Fifth, physical punishment predicts worsening behaviour over time in quasi-experimental studies. Sixth, associations between physical punishment and detrimental child outcomes are robust across child and parent characteristics. Finally, there is some evidence of a dose-response relationship. The consistency of these findings indicates that physical punishment is harmful to children and that policy remedies are warranted.
Topics: Child; Child Behavior; Child Protective Services; Child Rearing; Domestic Violence; Humans; Parent-Child Relations; Punishment
PubMed: 34197808
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00582-1 -
Journal of Personality and Social... Jul 2019The last decades of research have provided overwhelming evidence that compassion fosters a vast range of behaviors toward reducing suffering of others. In this regard,...
The last decades of research have provided overwhelming evidence that compassion fosters a vast range of behaviors toward reducing suffering of others. In this regard, compassion has been described as a prosocial tendency par excellence, fostering helping behavior across a variety of social situations. With the present contribution, we apply a differentiated perspective on compassion. Building on just deserts theory, we argue that when other individuals suffer from unjust actions, compassion for the suffering individuals can foster harmful tendencies toward those who caused the suffering (i.e., third-party punishment). In Studies 1a to 1f, we examined a rich variety of situations in which unjust suffering occurs (i.e., terrorist attacks, sexual assaults, rape of children, and war) and documented a positive relation between compassion for suffering victims and punishment inclinations toward those who caused the suffering. Applying an experimental approach using various paradigms in Studies 2 through 6, compassion was shown to increase third-party punishment. Additional analyses revealed that (a) this increase occurs because compassion intensified moral outrage, which in turn predicted third-party punishment (Studies 2 to 6), and (b) compassion only fosters third-party punishment when suffering was caused by high (vs. low) unjust acts (Study 5). Overall, the present research discusses compassion in a different light in that harmful consequences of compassion are considered. Implications are discussed from a perspective of basic research on compassion and third-party punishment as well as from a societal perspective. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
Topics: Adult; Empathy; Female; Helping Behavior; Humans; Male; Morals; Punishment; Young Adult
PubMed: 30945902
DOI: 10.1037/pspi0000165 -
Developmental Psychology Jun 2021Third-party punishment can promote fair behavior. However, the mechanisms by which this happens are unclear. Third-party punishment may increase fair behavior by...
Third-party punishment can promote fair behavior. However, the mechanisms by which this happens are unclear. Third-party punishment may increase fair behavior by providing direct feedback, helping shape the behavior of those punished, or through an influence on reputation, by encouraging the transgressor to behave appropriately before a third-party audience. Investigating whether and how third-party punishment leads to fairness in children during middle childhood-a key developmental period in the emergence of fairness-presents an ideal context in which to explore these 2 mechanisms. Six to nine-year-old children (N = 121) allocated resources between themselves and a partner in a forced-choice dictator game. In the Direct Feedback condition, a third party punished if the child chose the less fair option. In the Reputation condition, a third party merely observed the child. In the Baseline condition, no third party was present. We find that the Direct Feedback condition increased fairness relative to the other conditions, especially among younger children. These results highlight an important link between third-party punishment and fairness in children and, more broadly, help clarify the mechanisms through which third-party punishment can influence fair behavior and thereby human cooperation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
Topics: Child; Cooperative Behavior; Family; Humans; Punishment; Social Behavior
PubMed: 34424010
DOI: 10.1037/dev0001183 -
Child Abuse & Neglect Oct 2021To systematically assess the association between corporal punishment and young children's development in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). (Meta-Analysis)
Meta-Analysis
OBJECTIVE
To systematically assess the association between corporal punishment and young children's development in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).
METHOD
Data for 69 population-based surveys from the Multiple Indicators Cluster Survey (MICS) were combined. The sample included 131,164 children aged 36-59 months living in 49 LMICs. The surveys included information about children's developmental status and exposure to corporal punishment in the prior month. Logistic models, random-effects meta-analysis, and moderation analysis were used to obtain pooled estimates and assess the extent to which the association between corporal punishment and child developmental outcomes varied across countries.
RESULTS
On average, children exposed to corporal punishment were about 24% (β = 0.76, 95% CI 0.72-0.80) less likely to be developmentally on track than children who were not exposed to corporal punishment. Challenges in social-emotional development may drive the association between child development and corporal punishment. Corporal punishment was not associated with any positive developmental outcome in any country. There was minor heterogeneity in the estimated associations, which was not explained by the extent to which corporal punishment was normative within countries.
CONCLUSIONS
All forms of corporal punishment - including spanking - are likely to be harmful to young children's development and wellbeing. Public education, legal prohibition of corporal punishment, and other efforts are needed to protect children from corporal punishment and promote their wellbeing, health, and development.
Topics: Child; Child Development; Child, Preschool; Developing Countries; Humans; Poverty; Punishment; Surveys and Questionnaires
PubMed: 34298261
DOI: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105205 -
Psychology and Psychotherapy Dec 2022The relationship between sensitivity to punishment (SP) and emotional eating has been previously examined. However, effective variables in this relationship have yet to...
OBJECTIVES
The relationship between sensitivity to punishment (SP) and emotional eating has been previously examined. However, effective variables in this relationship have yet to be recognized. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between SP and emotional eating via facets of shame and rumination.
DESIGN
Serial Mediation model was proposed.
METHOD
Female university students in Iran (n = 174) completed Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire-Revised and Clarified (SPSRQ-RC), Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (DEBQ), Experience of Shame Scale (ESS) and Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS).
RESULTS
SP showed a significant effect on emotional eating. Moreover, we observed that the relationship between SP and emotional eating was separately mediated by shame (general, characterological and bodily shame) and rumination. We further noticed the sequentially mediating role of shame (general, characterological and behavioural shame) and rumination in the relationship between SP and emotional eating.
CONCLUSION
Findings suggest that high SP can increase the risk of emotional eating through negative emotions (e.g. shame) and disturbed cognitions (e.g. rumination). Therefore, for a better understanding, it seems necessary to consider emotional eating a maladaptive behaviour adopted as a possible result of the impairment of temperamental, emotional and cognitive systems.
Topics: Female; Humans; Punishment; Feeding and Eating Disorders; Shame; Emotions; Feeding Behavior
PubMed: 35661385
DOI: 10.1111/papt.12407 -
Journal of Personality and Social... Apr 2022Nine studies represent the first investigation into when and why people reveal other people's secrets. Although people keep their own immoral secrets to avoid being...
Nine studies represent the first investigation into when and why people reveal other people's secrets. Although people keep their own immoral secrets to avoid being punished, we propose that people will be motivated to reveal secrets to punish them for immoral acts. Experimental and correlational methods converge on the finding that people are more likely to reveal secrets that violate their own moral values. Participants were more willing to reveal immoral secrets as a form of punishment, and this was explained by feelings of moral outrage. Using hypothetical scenarios (Studies 1, 3-6), two controversial events in the news (hackers leaking citizens' private information; Study 2a-2b), and participants' behavioral choices to keep or reveal thousands of diverse secrets that they learned in their everyday lives (Studies 7-8), we present the first glimpse into when, how often, and one explanation for why people reveal others' secrets. We found that theories of self-disclosure do not generalize to others' secrets: Across diverse methodologies, including real decisions to reveal others' secrets in everyday life, people reveal others' secrets as punishment in response to moral outrage elicited from others' secrets. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
Topics: Emotions; Humans; Learning; Morals; Punishment; Self Disclosure
PubMed: 35099202
DOI: 10.1037/pspa0000284 -
Journal of Neurophysiology Nov 2023Reward and punishment have long been recognized as potent modulators of human behavior. Although reinforcement learning is a significant motor learning process, the...
Reward and punishment have long been recognized as potent modulators of human behavior. Although reinforcement learning is a significant motor learning process, the exact mechanisms underlying how the brain learns movements through reward and punishment are not yet fully understood. Beyond the memory of specific examples, investigating the ability to generalize to new situations offers a better understanding of motor learning. This study hypothesizes that reward and punishment engage qualitatively different motivational systems with different neurochemical and neuroanatomical substrates, which would have differential effects on reinforcement-based motor learning and generalization. To test this hypothesis, two groups of participants learn a motor task in one direction and then relearn the same task in a new direction, receiving only performance-based reward or punishment score feedback. Our findings support our hypothesis, showing that reward led to slower learning but promoted generalization. On the other hand, punishment led to faster learning but impaired generalization. These behavioral differences may be due to different tendencies of movement variability in each group. The punishment group tended to explore more actively than the reward group during the initial learning phase, possibly due to loss aversion. In contrast, the reward group tended to explore more actively than the initial learning phase during the generalization test phase, seemingly recalling the strategy that led to the reward. These results suggest that reward and punishment may engage different neural mechanisms during reinforcement-based motor learning and generalization, with important implications for practical applications such as sports training and motor rehabilitation. Although reinforcement learning is a significant motor learning process, the mechanisms underlying how the brain learns movements through reward and punishment are not fully understood. We modified a well-established motor adaptation task and used savings (faster relearning) to measure generalization. We found reward led to slower learning but promoted generalization, whereas punishment led to faster learning but impaired generalization, suggesting that reward and punishment may engage different neural mechanisms during reinforcement-based motor learning and generalization.
Topics: Humans; Punishment; Reinforcement, Psychology; Learning; Reward; Generalization, Psychological
PubMed: 37791387
DOI: 10.1152/jn.00242.2023