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Toxins Jan 2021Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi and represent one of the most common groups of food contaminants with low molecular weight. These toxins are... (Review)
Review
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi and represent one of the most common groups of food contaminants with low molecular weight. These toxins are considered common and can affect the food chain at various stages of production, harvesting, storage and processing. Zearalenone is one of over 400 detected mycotoxins and produced by fungi of the genus ; it mainly has estrogenic effects on various organisms. Contaminated products can lead to huge economic losses and pose risks to animals and humans. In this review, we systemize information on zearalenone and its major metabolites.
Topics: Animals; Food Contamination; Humans; Molecular Structure; Zearalenone
PubMed: 33418872
DOI: 10.3390/toxins13010035 -
Toxins Mar 2020Mycotoxins are considered the most frequently occurring natural contaminants in the diet of humans and animals [...].
Mycotoxins are considered the most frequently occurring natural contaminants in the diet of humans and animals [...].
Topics: Animal Feed; Animals; Dietary Exposure; Food Contamination; Gastrointestinal Microbiome; Humans; Mycotoxins; Occupational Exposure; Risk Assessment
PubMed: 32168950
DOI: 10.3390/toxins12030172 -
Toxins Dec 2020The interactions between mycotoxins and gut microbiota were discovered early in animals and explained part of the differences in susceptibility to mycotoxins among... (Review)
Review
The interactions between mycotoxins and gut microbiota were discovered early in animals and explained part of the differences in susceptibility to mycotoxins among species. Isolation of microbes present in the gut responsible for biotransformation of mycotoxins into less toxic metabolites and for binding mycotoxins led to the development of probiotics, enzymes, and cell extracts that are used to prevent mycotoxin toxicity in animals. More recently, bioactivation of mycotoxins into toxic compounds, notably through the hydrolysis of masked mycotoxins, revealed that the health benefits of the effect of the gut microbiota on mycotoxins can vary strongly depending on the mycotoxin and the microbe concerned. Interactions between mycotoxins and gut microbiota can also be observed through the effect of mycotoxins on the gut microbiota. Changes of gut microbiota secondary to mycotoxin exposure may be the consequence of the antimicrobial properties of mycotoxins or the toxic effect of mycotoxins on epithelial and immune cells in the gut, and liberation of antimicrobial peptides by these cells. Whatever the mechanism involved, exposure to mycotoxins leads to changes in the gut microbiota composition at the phylum, genus, and species level. These changes can lead to disruption of the gut barrier function and bacterial translocation. Changes in the gut microbiota composition can also modulate the toxicity of toxic compounds, such as bacterial toxins and of mycotoxins themselves. A last consequence for health of the change in the gut microbiota secondary to exposure to mycotoxins is suspected through variations observed in the amount and composition of the volatile fatty acids and sphingolipids that are normally present in the digesta, and that can contribute to the occurrence of chronic diseases in human. The purpose of this work is to review what is known about mycotoxin and gut microbiota interactions, the mechanisms involved in these interactions, and their practical application, and to identify knowledge gaps and future research needs.
Topics: Animals; Gastrointestinal Microbiome; Humans; Mycotoxins
PubMed: 33291716
DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120769 -
Journal of Integrative Neuroscience Oct 2023Gene-environment interaction is an emerging hypothesis to explain the increased incidence of neurological disorders. In this context, the health and clinical effects of... (Review)
Review
Gene-environment interaction is an emerging hypothesis to explain the increased incidence of neurological disorders. In this context, the health and clinical effects of exposure to air pollutants have received increasing attention. One of these pollutants is the growth of fungi and molds in the form of multicellular filaments, known as hyphae. Fungi and molds not only grow in outdoor environments, but they also thrive indoors with excessive moisture, producing mycotoxins. Mold enters the body through the nose via the olfactory neurons, which directly communicate with the brain. Mycotoxins induce toxicological effects similar to those associated with brain disorders such as oxidative stress and inflammation. One mold species can produce several different mycotoxins, and one mycotoxin can be produced by several different molds. Even a small amount of mold growth in the air conditioners and their ducts or the panels inside the buildings and even the cars cause the occupants to be chronically exposed to and constantly inhaling spores and mycotoxins, which causes illness. In this review, we focused on mold and mycotoxin exposure and brain disorders.
Topics: Mycotoxins; Air Pollution, Indoor; Fungi; Brain Diseases
PubMed: 38176924
DOI: 10.31083/j.jin2206137 -
Analytical Biochemistry May 2022Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced by fungi, which represent a risk to the food and feed supply chain, having an impact on health and economies. A high percentage... (Review)
Review
Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced by fungi, which represent a risk to the food and feed supply chain, having an impact on health and economies. A high percentage of feed samples have been reported to be contaminated with more than one type of mycotoxin. Systematic, cost-effective and simple tools for testing are critical to achieve a rapid and accurate screening of food and feed quality. In this review, we describe the various aptamers that have been selected against mycotoxins and their incorporation into optical and electrochemical aptasensors, outlining the strategies exploited, highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. The review also discusses the different materials used and the immobilization methods employed, with the aim of achieving the highest sensitivity and selectivity.
Topics: Food Contamination; Mycotoxins
PubMed: 33716125
DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2021.114156 -
Toxins May 2020Mycotoxins are toxic fungal secondary metabolites that contaminate food and feed. Mycotoxin contamination occurs as soon as environmental conditions are favorable for...
Mycotoxins are toxic fungal secondary metabolites that contaminate food and feed. Mycotoxin contamination occurs as soon as environmental conditions are favorable for fungal growth and mycotoxin production, in the fields, during storage of raw materials and during industrial processes [...].
Topics: Food Microbiology; Fungi; Fungicides, Industrial; Mycotoxins; Pest Control, Biological; Phytochemicals
PubMed: 32481521
DOI: 10.3390/toxins12060353 -
Toxins Mar 2022Mycotoxins are a group of toxic secondary metabolites produced in the food chain by fungi through the infection of crops both before and after harvest. Mycotoxins are... (Review)
Review
Mycotoxins are a group of toxic secondary metabolites produced in the food chain by fungi through the infection of crops both before and after harvest. Mycotoxins are one of the most important food safety concerns due to their severe poisonous and carcinogenic effects on humans and animals upon ingestion. In the last decade, insects have received wide attention as a highly nutritious, efficient and sustainable source of animal-derived protein and caloric energy for feed and food purposes. Many insects have been used to convert food waste into animal feed. As food waste might contain mycotoxins, research has been conducted on the metabolism and detoxification of mycotoxins by edible insects. The mycotoxins that have been studied include aflatoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone (ZEN), vomitoxin or deoxynivalenol (DON), and ochratoxins (OTAs). Aflatoxin metabolism is proved through the production of hydroxylated metabolites by NADPH-dependent reductases and hydroxylases by different insects. ZEN can be metabolized into α- and β-zearalenol. Three DON metabolites, 3-, 15-acetyl-DON, and DON-3-glucoside, have been identified in the insect DON metabolites. Unfortunately, the resulting metabolites, involved enzymes, and detoxification mechanisms of OTAs and fumonisins within insects have yet to be identified. Previous studies have been focused on the insect tolerance to mycotoxins and the produced metabolites; further research needs to be conducted to understand the exact enzymes and pathways that are involved.
Topics: Animal Feed; Animals; Edible Insects; Food Contamination; Fumonisins; Mycotoxins; Ochratoxins; Refuse Disposal; Zearalenone
PubMed: 35324714
DOI: 10.3390/toxins14030217 -
Toxins Feb 2021Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungal species that commonly have a toxic effect on human and animal health. Different foodstuff can be contaminated and... (Review)
Review
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungal species that commonly have a toxic effect on human and animal health. Different foodstuff can be contaminated and are considered the major source of human exposure to mycotoxins, but occupational and environmental exposure can also significantly contribute to this problem. This review aims to provide a short overview of the occurrence of toxigenic fungi and regulated mycotoxins in foods and workplaces, following the current literature and data presented in scientific papers. Biomonitoring of mycotoxins in plasma, serum, urine, and blood samples has become a common method for determining the exposure to different mycotoxins. Novel techniques are more and more precise and accurate and are aiming toward the simultaneous determination of multiple mycotoxins in one analysis. Application of liquid chromatography (LC) methodologies, coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) or high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) has become a common and most reliable method for determining the exposure to mycotoxins. Numerous references confirm the importance of mycotoxin biomonitoring to assess the exposure for humans and animals. The objectives of this paper were to review the general approaches to biomonitoring of different mycotoxins and the occurrence of toxigenic fungi and their mycotoxins, using recent literature sources.
Topics: Animal Feed; Biological Monitoring; Body Burden; Chromatography, Liquid; Dietary Exposure; Food Chain; Food Microbiology; Fungi; Humans; Mycotoxins; Occupational Exposure; Risk Assessment; Tandem Mass Spectrometry
PubMed: 33546479
DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020113 -
International Journal of Molecular... Dec 2021The global challenge to prevent fungal spoilage and mycotoxin contamination on food and feed requires the development of new antifungal strategies. Antimicrobial... (Review)
Review
The global challenge to prevent fungal spoilage and mycotoxin contamination on food and feed requires the development of new antifungal strategies. Antimicrobial peptides and proteins (AMPs) with antifungal activity are gaining much interest as natural antifungal compounds due to their properties such as structure diversity and function, antifungal spectrum, mechanism of action, high stability and the availability of biotechnological production methods. Given their multistep mode of action, the development of fungal resistance to AMPs is presumed to be slow or delayed compared to conventional fungicides. Interestingly, AMPs also accomplish important biological functions other than antifungal activity, including anti-mycotoxin biosynthesis activity, which opens novel aspects for their future use in agriculture and food industry to fight mycotoxin contamination. AMPs can reach intracellular targets and exert their activity by mechanisms other than membrane permeabilization. The mechanisms through which AMPs affect mycotoxin production are varied and complex, ranging from oxidative stress to specific inhibition of enzymatic components of mycotoxin biosynthetic pathways. This review presents natural and synthetic antifungal AMPs from different origins which are effective against mycotoxin-producing fungi, and aims at summarizing current knowledge concerning their additional effects on mycotoxin biosynthesis. Antifungal AMPs properties and mechanisms of action are also discussed.
Topics: Antifungal Agents; Antimicrobial Peptides; Biological Products; Food Microbiology; Food Preservation; Fungi; Mycotoxins; Oxidative Stress
PubMed: 34948059
DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413261 -
Toxins Oct 2019Mycotoxins are known worldwide as fungus-produced toxins that adulterate a wide heterogeneity of raw feed ingredients and final products. Consumption of... (Review)
Review
Mycotoxins are known worldwide as fungus-produced toxins that adulterate a wide heterogeneity of raw feed ingredients and final products. Consumption of mycotoxins-contaminated feed causes a plethora of harmful responses from acute toxicity to many persistent health disorders with lethal outcomes; such as mycotoxicosis when ingested by animals. Therefore, the main task for feed producers is to minimize the concentration of mycotoxin by applying different strategies aimed at minimizing the risk of mycotoxin effects on animals and human health. Once mycotoxins enter the production chain it is hard to eliminate or inactivate them. This paper examines the most recent findings on different processes and strategies for the reduction of toxicity of mycotoxins in animals. The review gives detailed information about the decontamination approaches to mitigate mycotoxin contamination of feedstuffs and compound feed, which could be implemented in practice.
Topics: Animal Feed; Animals; Decontamination; Food Contamination; Mycotoxins
PubMed: 31731462
DOI: 10.3390/toxins11110617