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PLoS Biology Dec 2023The pituitary represents an essential hub in the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Pituitary hormone-producing cells (HPCs) release several hormones to regulate...
The pituitary represents an essential hub in the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Pituitary hormone-producing cells (HPCs) release several hormones to regulate fundamental bodily functions under normal and stressful conditions. It is well established that the pituitary endocrine gland modulates the immune system by releasing adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in response to neuronal activation in the hypothalamus. However, it remains unclear how systemic inflammation regulates the transcriptomic profiles of pituitary HPCs. Here, we performed single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) of the mouse pituitary and revealed that upon inflammation, all major pituitary HPCs respond robustly in a cell type-specific manner, with corticotropes displaying the strongest reaction. Systemic inflammation also led to the production and release of noncanonical bioactive molecules, including Nptx2 by corticotropes, to modulate immune homeostasis. Meanwhile, HPCs up-regulated the gene expression of chemokines that facilitated the communication between the HPCs and immune cells. Together, our study reveals extensive interactions between the pituitary and immune system, suggesting multifaceted roles of the pituitary in mediating the effects of inflammation on many aspects of body physiology.
Topics: Mice; Animals; Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone; Pituitary Gland; Adrenocorticotropic Hormone; Inflammation; Gene Expression Profiling
PubMed: 38109308
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3002403 -
Frontiers in Endocrinology 2023The pituitary gland represents the hub of our endocrine system. Its cells produce specific hormones that direct multiple vital physiological processes such as body... (Review)
Review
The pituitary gland represents the hub of our endocrine system. Its cells produce specific hormones that direct multiple vital physiological processes such as body growth, fertility, and stress. The gland also contains a population of stem cells which are still enigmatic in phenotype and function. Appropriate research models are needed to advance our knowledge on pituitary (stem cell) biology. Over the last decade, 3D organoid models have been established, either derived from the pituitary stem cells or from pluripotent stem cells, covering both healthy and diseased conditions. Here, we summarize the state-of-the-art of pituitary-allied organoid models and discuss applications of these powerful research and translational tools to study pituitary development, biology, and disease.
Topics: Pituitary Gland; Organoids; Fertility; Health Status; Pluripotent Stem Cells
PubMed: 37614709
DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1233714 -
International Journal of Molecular... Apr 2023The bony skeleton, as a structural foundation for the human body, is essential in providing mechanical function and movement. The human skeleton is a highly specialized... (Review)
Review
The bony skeleton, as a structural foundation for the human body, is essential in providing mechanical function and movement. The human skeleton is a highly specialized and dynamic organ that undergoes continuous remodeling as it adapts to the demands of its environment. Advances in research over the last decade have shone light on the various hormones that influence this process, modulating the metabolism and structural integrity of bone. More recently, novel and non-traditional functions of hypothalamic, pituitary, and adipose hormones and their effects on bone homeostasis have been proposed. This review highlights recent work on physiological bone remodeling and discusses our knowledge, as it currently stands, on the systemic interplay of factors regulating this interaction. In this review, we provide a summary of the literature on the relationship between bone physiology and hormones including kisspeptin, neuropeptide Y, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), prolactin (PRL), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), growth hormone (GH), leptin, and adiponectin. The discovery and understanding of this new functionality unveils an entirely new layer of physiologic circuitry.
Topics: Humans; Pituitary Gland; Hypothalamus; Growth Hormone; Prolactin; Thyrotropin; Adipose Tissue
PubMed: 37047811
DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076840 -
Frontiers in Endocrinology 2020The anterior pituitary gland is comprised of specialized cell-types that produce and secrete polypeptide hormones in response to hypothalamic input and feedback from... (Review)
Review
The anterior pituitary gland is comprised of specialized cell-types that produce and secrete polypeptide hormones in response to hypothalamic input and feedback from target organs. These specialized cells arise during embryonic development, from stem cells that express SOX2 and the pituitary transcription factor PROP1, which is necessary to establish the stem cell pool and promote an epithelial to mesenchymal-like transition, releasing progenitors from the niche. Human and mouse embryonic stem cells can differentiate into all major hormone-producing cell types of the anterior lobe in a highly plastic and dynamic manner. More recently human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) emerged as a viable alternative due to their plasticity and high proliferative capacity. This mini-review gives an overview of the major advances that have been achieved to develop protocols to generate pituitary hormone-producing cell types from stem cells and how these mechanisms are regulated. We also discuss their application in pituitary diseases, such as pituitary hormone deficiencies.
Topics: Animals; Cell Differentiation; Humans; Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells; Pituitary Diseases; Pituitary Gland; Regenerative Medicine
PubMed: 33542708
DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2020.614999 -
Endocrinology Dec 2022The discovery of hypothalamic hormones propelled exciting advances in pharmacotherapy and improved life quality worldwide. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) is a... (Review)
Review
The discovery of hypothalamic hormones propelled exciting advances in pharmacotherapy and improved life quality worldwide. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) is a crucial element in homeostasis maintenance, and regulates the release of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary gland. Accumulating evidence suggests that this neuropeptide can also promote malignancies, as well as inflammation. Our review is focused on the role of that 44 - amino acid peptide (GHRH) and its antagonists in inflammation and vascular function, summarizing recent findings in the corresponding field. Preclinical studies demonstrate the protective role of GHRH antagonists against endothelial barrier dysfunction, suggesting that the development of those peptides may lead to new therapies against pathologies related to vascular remodeling (eg, sepsis, acute respiratory distress syndrome). Targeted therapies for those diseases do not exist.
Topics: Humans; Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone; Growth Hormone; Pituitary Gland, Anterior; Peptides; Inflammation; Receptors, Pituitary Hormone-Regulating Hormone
PubMed: 36503995
DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqac209 -
Japanese Journal of Radiology Sep 2023Hypophysitis is an inflammatory disease affecting the pituitary gland. Hypophysitis can be classified into multiple types depending on the mechanisms (primary or... (Review)
Review
Hypophysitis is an inflammatory disease affecting the pituitary gland. Hypophysitis can be classified into multiple types depending on the mechanisms (primary or secondary), histology (lymphocytic, granulomatous, xanthomatous, plasmacytic/IgG4 related, necrotizing, or mixed), and anatomy (adenohypophysitis, infundibulo-neurohypophysitis, or panhypophysitis). An appropriate diagnosis is vital for managing these potentially life-threatening conditions. However, physiological morphological alterations, remnants, and neoplastic and non-neoplastic lesions may masquerade as hypophysitis, both clinically and radiologically. Neuroimaging, as well as imaging findings of other sites of the body, plays a pivotal role in diagnosis. In this article, we will review the types of hypophysitis and summarize clinical and imaging features of both hypophysitis and its mimickers.
Topics: Humans; Pituitary Diseases; Pituitary Gland; Hypophysitis; Neuroimaging; Diagnosis, Differential
PubMed: 37010787
DOI: 10.1007/s11604-023-01417-y -
International Journal of Molecular... Aug 2022Pituitary apoplexy is a rare syndrome, graded from asymptomatic subclinical apoplexy to a life-threatening condition due to pituitary ischemia or haemorrhage of an... (Review)
Review
Pituitary apoplexy is a rare syndrome, graded from asymptomatic subclinical apoplexy to a life-threatening condition due to pituitary ischemia or haemorrhage of an enlarged pituitary gland. The risk factors and the molecular underlying mechanisms are yet to be elucidated. We provide an overview of the general concepts, the potential factors associated with pituitary adenoma susceptibility for apoplectic events and the molecular mechanisms that could be involved such as HIF-1α/VEGF pathways and metalloproteinases activation, among others. The knowledge of the molecular mechanisms that could participate in the pathogenesis of pituitary apoplexy is crucial to advancement in the identification of future diagnostic tools and therapeutic targets in this rare but sometimes fatal condition.
Topics: Adenoma; Humans; Pituitary Apoplexy; Pituitary Gland; Pituitary Neoplasms; Risk Factors
PubMed: 35955859
DOI: 10.3390/ijms23158721 -
Revista de Investigacion Clinica;... 2020The pituitary gland is responsible for the synthesis and secretion of various hormones that play a key role in regulating endocrine function and homeostasis. Pituitary... (Review)
Review
The pituitary gland is responsible for the synthesis and secretion of various hormones that play a key role in regulating endocrine function and homeostasis. Pituitary adenomas (PA) are benign epithelial tumors arising from the endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary gland. Clinically relevant PA are relatively common and they occur in 0.1% of the general population. They are mostly benign monoclonal neoplasms that arise from any of the five hormone-secreting cell types of the anterior pituitary gland. PA are categorized as either functioning or non-functioning, depending on whether or not they produce a hormonal hypersecretion syndrome. Both functioning and non-functioning adenomas can produce symptoms or signs resulting from compression of the optic chiasm or invasion of cavernous sinuses. Only 5% of PA occur within the context of hereditary syndromes with reasonably well-defined oncogenic mechanisms. The vast majority of PA are sporadic, and their etiopathogenesis remains largely unknown. Pituitary tumor oncogenesis involves several mechanisms that eventually lead to abnormal cell proliferation and dysregulated hormone production. Among these factors, we found inactivating mutations of tumor suppressor genes, activating mutation of oncogenes and the participation of hormonal signals coming from the hypothalamus, all resulting in cell-cycle regulation abnormalities. In this review, we summarize the clinical and pathophysiological aspects of the different hereditary pituitary tumor syndromes.
Topics: Adenoma; Animals; Humans; Mutation; Pituitary Gland; Pituitary Neoplasms; Syndrome
PubMed: 32132734
DOI: 10.24875/RIC.19003186 -
Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology Jan 2020Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a glycoprotein hormone produced by gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary that plays a central role in controlling ovarian... (Review)
Review
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a glycoprotein hormone produced by gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary that plays a central role in controlling ovarian folliculogenesis and steroidogenesis in females. Moreover, recent studies strongly suggest that FSH exerts extragonadal actions, particularly regulating bone mass and adiposity. Despite its crucial role, the mechanisms regulating FSH secretion are not completely understood. It is evident that hypothalamic, ovarian, and pituitary factors are involved in the neuroendocrine, paracrine, and autocrine regulation of FSH production. Large animal models, such as the female sheep, represent valuable research models to investigate specific aspects of FSH secretory processes. This review: (i) summarizes the role of FSH controlling reproduction and other biological processes; (ii) discusses the hypothalamic, gonadal, and pituitary regulation of FSH secretion; (iii) considers the biological relevance of the different FSH isoforms; and (iv) summarizes the distinct patterns of FSH secretion under different physiological conditions.
Topics: Animals; Autocrine Communication; Female; Follicle Stimulating Hormone; Humans; Hypothalamus; Ovary; Paracrine Communication; Pituitary Gland; Reproduction
PubMed: 31682864
DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2019.110632 -
Hormones and Behavior Sep 2022It is widely known that GnRH plays a role in facilitating reproductive function via the HPG axis, and this was once believed to be its only function. However, over the... (Review)
Review
It is widely known that GnRH plays a role in facilitating reproductive function via the HPG axis, and this was once believed to be its only function. However, over the last several decades important neuromodulatory roles of GnRH in multiple brain functions have been elucidated. Multiple GnRH isoforms and receptors have been detected outside the HPG-axis across different species. In this review, we focus on the human CNS where GnRH I and II isoforms and a functional GnRH I receptor have been isolated. We first describe the traditional understanding of GnRH within the hypothalamus and the pituitary and current clinical use of GnRH analogues. We then review the location and function of GnRH-producing neurons and receptors located outside the HPG axis. We next review the GnRH I and II neuron location and quantity and GnRH I receptor gene expression throughout the human brain, using the Allen Brain Map Atlas. This analysis demonstrates a wide expression of GnRH throughout the brain, including prominent expression in the basal forebrain and cerebellum. Lastly, we examine the potential role of GnRH in aging and inflammation and its therapeutic potential for neurodegenerative disease and spinal cord lesions.
Topics: Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone; Humans; Hypothalamus; Neurodegenerative Diseases; Pituitary Gland; Receptors, LHRH
PubMed: 35809386
DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2022.105230