-
The Canadian Veterinary Journal = La... Jul 1994
Topics: Acepromazine; Animals; Anti-Arrhythmia Agents; Antiemetics; Contraindications
PubMed: 8076296
DOI: No ID Found -
The Veterinary Record Oct 1979
Topics: Acepromazine; Animals; Horse Diseases; Horses; Male; Penile Diseases; Prolapse
PubMed: 552739
DOI: 10.1136/vr.105.17.405-a -
Veterinary Journal (London, England :... Oct 2012Acepromazine (ACP) is a useful therapeutic drug, but is a prohibited substance in competition horses. The illicit use of ACP is difficult to detect due to its rapid... (Clinical Trial)
Clinical Trial
Acepromazine (ACP) is a useful therapeutic drug, but is a prohibited substance in competition horses. The illicit use of ACP is difficult to detect due to its rapid metabolism, so this study investigated the ACP metabolite 2-(1-hydroxyethyl)promazine sulphoxide (HEPS) as a potential forensic marker. Acepromazine maleate, equivalent to 30mg of ACP, was given IV to 12 racing-bred geldings. Blood and urine were collected for 7days post-administration and analysed for ACP and HEPS by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Acepromazine was quantifiable in plasma for up to 3h with little reaching the urine unmodified. Similar to previous studies, there was wide variation in the distribution and metabolism of ACP. The metabolite HEPS was quantifiable for up to 24h in plasma and 144h in urine. The metabolism of ACP to HEPS was fast and erratic, so the early phase of the HEPS emergence could not be modelled directly, but was assumed to be similar to the rate of disappearance of ACP. However, the relationship between peak plasma HEPS and the y-intercept of the kinetic model was strong (P=0.001, r(2)=0.72), allowing accurate determination of the formation pharmacokinetics of HEPS. Due to its rapid metabolism, testing of forensic samples for the parent drug is redundant with IV administration. The relatively long half-life of HEPS and its stable behaviour beyond the initial phase make it a valuable indicator of ACP use, and by determining the urine-to-plasma concentration ratios for HEPS, the approximate dose of ACP administration may be estimated.
Topics: Acepromazine; Animals; Area Under Curve; Dopamine Antagonists; Forensic Medicine; Half-Life; Horses; Male; Promazine
PubMed: 22534188
DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.03.017 -
Journal of the American Association For... Mar 2020Studies of visual responses in isoflurane-anesthetized mice often use the sedative chlorprothixene to decrease the amount of isoflurane used because excessive isoflurane...
Studies of visual responses in isoflurane-anesthetized mice often use the sedative chlorprothixene to decrease the amount of isoflurane used because excessive isoflurane could adversely affect light-evoked responses. However, data are not available to justify the use of this nonpharmaceutical-grade chemical. The current study tested whether pharmaceutical-grade sedatives would be appropriate alternatives for imaging pupillary light reflexes. Male 15-wk-old mice were injected intraperitoneally with 1 mg/kg chlorprothixene, 5 mg/kg acepromazine, 10 mg/kg chlorpromazine, or saline. After anesthetic induction, anesthesia maintenance used 0.5% and 1% isoflurane for sedative- and saline-injected mice, respectively. A photostimulus (16.0 log photons cm s; 470 nm) was presented to the right eye for 20 min, during which the left eye was imaged for consensual pupillary constriction and involuntary pupil drift. Time to immobilization, loss of righting reflex, physiologic parameters, gain of righting reflex, and degree of recovery were assessed also. The sedative groups were statistically indistinguishable for all measures. By contrast, pupillary drift occurred far more often in saline-treated mice than in the sedative groups. Furthermore, saline-treated mice took longer to reach maximal pupil constriction than all sedative groups and had lower heart rates compared with chlorpromazine- and chlorprothixene-sedated mice. Full recovery (as defined by purposeful movement, response to tactile stimuli, and full alertness) was not regularly achieved in any sedative group. In conclusion, at the doses tested, acepromazine and chlorpromazine are suitable pharmaceutical-grade alternatives to chlorprothixene for pupil imaging and conceivably other in vivo photoresponse measurements; however, given the lack of full recovery, lower dosages should be investigated further for use in survival procedures.
Topics: Acepromazine; Anesthesia; Animals; Chlorpromazine; Chlorprothixene; Dopamine Antagonists; Isoflurane; Light; Male; Mice; Pharmaceutical Preparations; Reflex, Pupillary
PubMed: 31915106
DOI: 10.30802/AALAS-JAALAS-19-000094 -
Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia Mar 2021To evaluate the effects of incremental doses of acepromazine on hemodynamics in isoflurane-anesthetized dogs.
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate the effects of incremental doses of acepromazine on hemodynamics in isoflurane-anesthetized dogs.
STUDY DESIGN
Prospective, experimental study.
ANIMALS
Healthy, adult, mixed-breed dogs (two male and four female) weighing 16.8 ± 5.1 kg (mean ± standard deviation).
METHODS
Dogs were anesthetized with propofol (7 mg kg) intravenously (IV) and isoflurane. Thermodilution and arterial catheters were placed for hemodynamic monitoring and arterial blood sampling for blood gas analysis. Baseline measurements were performed with stable expired concentration of isoflurane (Fe'Iso) at 1.8%. Each dog was then administered four incremental acepromazine injections (10, 15, 25 and 50 μg kg) IV, and measurements were repeated 20 minutes after each acepromazine injection with Fe'Iso decreased to 1.2%. The four acepromazine injections resulted in cumulative doses of 10, 25, 50 and 100 μg kg (time points ACP, ACP, ACP and ACP, respectively).
RESULTS
Compared with baseline, cardiac index (CI) increased significantly by 34%, whereas systemic vascular resistance index (SVRI) decreased by 25% at ACP and ACP. Arterial oxygen content (CaO) was significantly lower than baseline after all acepromazine injections (maximum decreases of 11%) and was lower at ACP and ACP than at ACP. No significant change was found in heart rate, stroke index, oxygen delivery index and systolic, mean and diastolic blood pressures. Hypotension (mean arterial pressure < 60 mmHg) was observed in one dog at baseline, ACP, ACP and ACP, and in two dogs at ACP.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Compared with isoflurane alone, anesthesia with acepromazine-isoflurane resulted in increased CI and decreased SVRI and CaO values. These effects were dose-related, being more pronounced at ACP and ACP. Under the conditions of this study, acepromazine administration did not change blood pressure.
Topics: Acepromazine; Animals; Blood Pressure; Cross-Over Studies; Dogs; Female; Heart Rate; Hemodynamics; Isoflurane; Male; Prospective Studies
PubMed: 33388251
DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2020.11.003 -
Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia Jul 2022To determine the effects of intravenous (IV) premedication with acepromazine, butorphanol or their combination, on the propofol anesthetic induction dosage in dogs.
OBJECTIVE
To determine the effects of intravenous (IV) premedication with acepromazine, butorphanol or their combination, on the propofol anesthetic induction dosage in dogs.
STUDY DESIGN
Prospective, blinded, Latin square design.
ANIMALS
A total of three male and three female, healthy Beagle dogs, aged 3.79 ± 0.02 years, weighing 10.6 ± 1.1 kg, mean ± standard deviation.
METHODS
Each dog was assigned to one of six IV treatments weekly: 0.9% saline (treatment SAL), low-dose acepromazine (0.02 mg kg; treatment LDA), high-dose acepromazine (0.04 mg kg; treatment HDA), low-dose butorphanol (0.2 mg kg; treatment LDB), high-dose butorphanol (0.4 mg kg; treatment HDB); and a combination of acepromazine (0.02 mg kg) with butorphanol (0.2 mg kg; treatment ABC). Physiologic variables and sedation scores were collected at baseline and 10 minutes after premedication. Then propofol was administered at 1 mg kg IV over 15 seconds, followed by boluses (0.5 mg kg over 5 seconds) every 15 seconds until intubation. Propofol dose, physiologic variables, recovery time, recovery score and adverse effects were monitored and recorded. Data were analyzed using mixed-effects anova (p < 0.05).
RESULTS
Propofol dosage was lower in all treatments than in treatment SAL (4.4 ± 0.5 mg kg); the largest decrease was recorded in treatment ABC (1.7 ± 0.3 mg kg). Post induction mean arterial pressures (MAPs) were lower than baseline values of treatments LDA, HDA and ABC. Apnea and hypotension (MAP < 60 mmHg) developed in some dogs in all treatments with the greatest incidence of hypotension in treatment ABC (4/6 dogs).
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Although the largest decrease in propofol dosage required for intubation was after IV premedication with acepromazine and butorphanol, hypotension and apnea still occurred.
Topics: Acepromazine; Anesthesia; Animals; Apnea; Butorphanol; Dog Diseases; Dogs; Female; Hypotension; Male; Propofol; Prospective Studies
PubMed: 35606286
DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2022.03.002 -
Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia Jul 2022To investigate the effects of intramuscularly administered acepromazine or dexmedetomidine on buccal mucosa microcirculation in Beagle dogs.
Effects of acepromazine and dexmedetomidine, followed by propofol induction and maintenance with isoflurane anaesthesia, on the microcirculation of Beagle dogs evaluated by sidestream dark field imaging: an experimental trial.
OBJECTIVE
To investigate the effects of intramuscularly administered acepromazine or dexmedetomidine on buccal mucosa microcirculation in Beagle dogs.
STUDY DESIGN
Experimental, blinded, crossover study.
ANIMALS
A group of seven Beagle dogs aged 7.5 ± 1.4 years (mean ± standard deviation).
METHODS
Microcirculation was assessed on buccal mucosa using sidestream dark field videomicroscopy. After baseline measurements, 5 μg kg dexmedetomidine or 30 μg kg acepromazine were administered intramuscularly. After 10, 20 and 30 minutes, measurements were repeated. At 40 minutes after premedication, anaesthesia was induced with propofol intravenously and maintained with isoflurane. Measurements were repeated 50, 60 and 65 minutes after the injection of the investigated drugs. Analysed microcirculatory variables were: Perfused de Backer density, Perfused de Backer density of vessels < 20 μm, Proportion of perfused vessels and Proportion of perfused vessels < 20 μm. Heart rate (HR), systolic, diastolic (DAP) and mean (MAP) arterial pressures were recorded at the same time points. Macro- and microcirculatory variables were analysed using a linear mixed model with baseline as a covariate, treatment, trial period and repetition as fixed effects and time and dog as random effect. Results are presented as effect size and confidence interval; p values < 0.05 were considered significant.
RESULTS
After acepromazine, Perfused de Backer density was greater during sedation and anaesthesia [3.71 (1.93-5.48 mm mm, p < 0.0001) and 2.3 (0.86-3.75 mm mm, p < 0.003)], respectively, than after dexmedetomidine. HR was significantly lower, whereas MAP and DAP were significantly higher with dexmedetomidine during sedation and anaesthesia (p < 0.0001 for all) compared with acepromazine.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
The sedative drugs tested exerted a significant effect on buccal mucosal microcirculation with a higher Perfused de Backer density after the administration of acepromazine compared with dexmedetomidine. This should be considered when microcirculation is evaluated using these drugs.
Topics: Acepromazine; Anesthesia; Animals; Cross-Over Studies; Dexmedetomidine; Dogs; Hypnotics and Sedatives; Isoflurane; Microcirculation; Propofol
PubMed: 35568677
DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2022.04.001 -
Equine Veterinary Journal Jul 2020To facilitate lameness evaluation, sedatives such as xylazine and acepromazine are regularly used in the clinical setting, despite concerns that they may confound...
BACKGROUND
To facilitate lameness evaluation, sedatives such as xylazine and acepromazine are regularly used in the clinical setting, despite concerns that they may confound lameness assessment.
OBJECTIVES
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of low doses of acepromazine and xylazine on subjective and objective lameness assessment.
STUDY DESIGN
Randomised, blinded, crossover study.
METHODS
Six horses with experimentally induced solar pain were evaluated over a 1-hour period after treatment with intravenous xylazine (0.1 or 0.2 mg/kg), intravenous acepromazine (0.02 or 0.04 mg/kg), intravenous saline (1 mL) or local analgesia (4 mL 2% mepivacaine administered subcutaneously). Lameness was assessed objectively with inertial sensors and subjectively on a scale from 0 to 5. Lameness assessments were compared with logistic regression analysis to account for the repeated measures and cross-over study design (P < .05).
RESULTS
Xylazine (0.1 and 0.2 mg/kg) or acepromazine (0.02 and 0.04 mg/kg) did not result in significant differences in objective lameness assessment (vector sum) or average subjective lameness grade. Local analgesia was associated with a decrease in subjective lameness grade (OR 0.32 [0.11-0.92], P = .03). Objective measures of lameness (vector sum) were significantly decreased 45 minutes (vector sum 41.8, P = .04) and 60 minutes (vector sum 47.3, P = .03) following local analgesia administration compared with baseline (vector sum 121.4).
MAIN LIMITATIONS
Extrapolation of the experimental model of moderate lameness used in this study to broad range of clinical lameness situations should be performed carefully.
CONCLUSIONS
These results support the use of low doses of xylazine or acepromazine to facilitate forelimb lameness evaluation up to 1 hour in duration.
Topics: Acepromazine; Animals; Cross-Over Studies; Forelimb; Horses; Hypnotics and Sedatives; Lameness, Animal; Xylazine
PubMed: 31863505
DOI: 10.1111/evj.13225 -
Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia May 2023To describe ketamine-propofol total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA) following premedication with acepromazine and either medetomidine, midazolam or morphine in rabbits.
Ketamine-propofol for total intravenous anaesthesia in rabbits: a comparison of premedication with acepromazine-medetomidine, acepromazine-midazolam or acepromazine-morphine.
OBJECTIVE
To describe ketamine-propofol total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA) following premedication with acepromazine and either medetomidine, midazolam or morphine in rabbits.
STUDY DESIGN
Randomized, crossover experimental study.
ANIMALS
A total of six healthy female New Zealand White rabbits (2.2 ± 0.3 kg).
METHODS
Rabbits were anaesthetized on four occasions, each separated by 7 days: an intramuscular injection of saline alone (treatment Saline) or acepromazine (0.5 mg kg) in combination with medetomidine (0.1 mg kg), midazolam (1 mg kg) or morphine (1 mg kg), treatments AME, AMI or AMO, respectively, in random order. Anaesthesia was induced and maintained with a mixture containing ketamine (5 mg mL) and propofol (5 mg mL) (ketofol). Each trachea was intubated and the rabbit administered oxygen during spontaneous ventilation. Ketofol infusion rate was initially 0.4 mg kg minute (0.2 mg kg minute of each drug) and was adjusted to maintain adequate anaesthetic depth based on clinical assessment. Ketofol dose and physiological variables were recorded every 5 minutes. Quality of sedation, intubation and recovery times were recorded.
RESULTS
Ketofol induction doses decreased significantly in treatments AME (7.9 ± 2.3) and AMI (8.9 ± 4.0) compared with treatment Saline (16.8 ± 3.2 mg kg) (p < 0.05). The total ketofol dose to maintain anaesthesia was significantly lower in treatments AME, AMI and AMO (0.6 ± 0.1, 0.6 ± 0.2 and 0.6 ± 0.1 mg kg minute, respectively) than in treatment Saline (1.2 ± 0.2 mg kg minute) (p < 0.05). Cardiovascular variables remained at clinically acceptable values, but all treatments caused some degree of hypoventilation.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Premedication with AME, AMI and AMO, at the doses studied, significantly decreased the maintenance dose of ketofol infusion in rabbits. Ketofol was determined to be a clinically acceptable combination for TIVA in premedicated rabbits.
Topics: Rabbits; Female; Animals; Propofol; Midazolam; Medetomidine; Ketamine; Acepromazine; Anesthetics, Intravenous; Hypnotics and Sedatives; Anesthesia, Intravenous; Anesthesia, General; Premedication; Morphine Derivatives
PubMed: 36894406
DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2023.02.002 -
Journal of Medical Toxicology :... Mar 2015Acepromazine is a phenothiazine that is used exclusively in veterinary medicine for multiple purposes. Human overdoses are rarely reported and toxicokinetic data has...
INTRODUCTION
Acepromazine is a phenothiazine that is used exclusively in veterinary medicine for multiple purposes. Human overdoses are rarely reported and toxicokinetic data has never been reported. We present a case of intentional acepromazine overdose resulting in central nervous system and cardiovascular toxicity with confirmatory toxicokinetic data.
CASE REPORT
A 54-year-old woman intentionally ingested 950 mg of her dog's acepromazine. Within 3 h of ingestion, she developed central nervous system and respiratory depression along with hypotension requiring non-invasive ventilation and vasopressors. Clinical toxicity resolved over the following 8 h. Serial plasma acepromazine levels were determined using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. The initial acepromazine level (1-h post-ingestion) was 63 ng/ml. Follow-up levels at 8-, 10.5-, and 13.5-h post-ingestion were 8.9 ng/ml, 7.6 ng/ml, and 6.3 ng/ml, respectively.
DISCUSSION
Human acepromazine toxicity is rarely reported but results in clinical toxicity (central nervous system depression, respiratory depression, hypotension) are similar to other phenothiazines. Compared to other phenothiazines, it appears to have a short elimination half-life that may account for the brief duration of clinical toxicity with relatively rapid improvement. No significant human cardiac toxicity has been reported. Treatment is supportive.
CONCLUSION
This case highlights the unique toxicity of acepromazine in demonstrating rapid improvement of severe toxicity within 8 h consistent with a short elimination half-life.
Topics: Acepromazine; Combined Modality Therapy; Dopamine Antagonists; Drug Overdose; Emergency Service, Hospital; Female; Half-Life; Humans; Hypotension; Middle Aged; Neurotoxicity Syndromes; Respiratory Insufficiency; Toxicokinetics; Treatment Outcome; Veterinary Drugs
PubMed: 25059809
DOI: 10.1007/s13181-014-0416-1