-
Clinics in Laboratory Medicine Mar 2010Malaria has had a greater impact on world history than any other infectious disease. More than 300 to 500 million individuals worldwide are infected with Plasmodium spp,... (Review)
Review
Malaria has had a greater impact on world history than any other infectious disease. More than 300 to 500 million individuals worldwide are infected with Plasmodium spp, and 1.5 to 2.7 million people a year, most of whom are children, die from the infection. Malaria is endemic in over 90 countries in which 2400 million people live; this represents 40% of the world's population. Approximately 90% of malaria deaths occur in Africa. Despite continuing efforts in vaccine development, malaria prevention is difficult, and no drug is universally effective. This article examines malaria caused by the 4 most common Plasmodium spp that infect humans, P vivax, P ovale, P malariae, and P falciparum, as well as mixed infections and the simian parasite P knowlesi. A comprehensive review of the microbiology, clinical presentation, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of these forms of malaria is given.
Topics: Animals; Drug Resistance; Global Warming; Humans; Malaria; Malaria Vaccines; Parasitemia; Plasmodium; Prognosis
PubMed: 20513543
DOI: 10.1016/j.cll.2009.10.001 -
Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in... Jan 2018In the mosquito-human life cycle, the six species of malaria parasites infecting humans (, , , , , and ) undergo 10 or more morphological states, replicate from single... (Review)
Review
In the mosquito-human life cycle, the six species of malaria parasites infecting humans (, , , , , and ) undergo 10 or more morphological states, replicate from single to 10,000+ cells, and vary in total population from one to many more than 10 organisms. In the human host, only a small number of these morphological stages lead to clinical disease and the vast majority of all malaria-infected patients in the world produce few (if any) symptoms in the human. Human clinical disease (e.g., fever, anemia, coma) is the result of the parasite preprogrammed biology in concert with the human pathophysiological response. Caveats and corollaries that add variation to this host-parasite interaction include parasite genetic diversity of key proteins, coinfections, comorbidities, delays in treatment, human polymorphisms, and environmental determinants.
Topics: Female; Humans; Malaria; Malaria, Cerebral; Placenta; Plasmodium; Pregnancy; Species Specificity; Virulence Factors
PubMed: 28533315
DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a025569 -
Advances in Parasitology 2021The zoonotic parasite Plasmodium knowlesi has emerged as an important cause of human malaria in parts of Southeast Asia. The parasite is indistinguishable by microscopy... (Review)
Review
The zoonotic parasite Plasmodium knowlesi has emerged as an important cause of human malaria in parts of Southeast Asia. The parasite is indistinguishable by microscopy from the more benign P. malariae, but can result in high parasitaemias with multiorgan failure, and deaths have been reported. Recognition of severe knowlesi malaria, and prompt initiation of effective therapy is therefore essential to prevent adverse outcomes. Here we review all studies reporting treatment of uncomplicated and severe knowlesi malaria. We report that although chloroquine is effective for the treatment of uncomplicated knowlesi malaria, artemisinin combination treatment is associated with faster parasite clearance times and lower rates of anaemia during follow-up, and should be considered the treatment of choice, particularly given the risk of administering chloroquine to drug-resistant P. vivax or P. falciparum misdiagnosed as P. knowlesi malaria in co-endemic areas. For severe knowlesi malaria, intravenous artesunate has been shown to be highly effective and associated with reduced case-fatality rates, and should be commenced without delay. Regular paracetamol may also be considered for patients with severe knowlesi malaria or for those with acute kidney injury, to attenuate the renal damage resulting from haemolysis-induced lipid peroxidation.
Topics: Antimalarials; Artesunate; Humans; Malaria; Malaria, Falciparum; Plasmodium knowlesi
PubMed: 34620385
DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2021.08.004 -
The American Journal of Tropical... Jul 2018Important strides have been made within the past decade toward malaria elimination in many regions, and with this progress, the feasibility of eradication is once again... (Review)
Review
Important strides have been made within the past decade toward malaria elimination in many regions, and with this progress, the feasibility of eradication is once again under discussion. If the ambitious goal of eradication is to be achieved by 2040, all species of infecting humans will need to be targeted with evidence-based and concerted interventions. In this perspective, the potential barriers to achieving global malaria elimination are discussed with respect to the related diversities in host, parasite, and vector populations. We argue that control strategies need to be reorientated from a sequential attack on each species, dominated by to one that targets all species in parallel. A set of research themes is proposed to mitigate the potential setbacks on the pathway to a malaria-free world.
Topics: Animals; Anopheles; Antimalarials; Chloroquine; Disease Eradication; Host-Parasite Interactions; Humans; Malaria; Malaria, Falciparum; Malaria, Vivax; Mosquito Vectors; Plasmodium falciparum; Plasmodium knowlesi; Plasmodium malariae; Plasmodium ovale; Plasmodium vivax; Primaquine
PubMed: 29761762
DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.17-0869 -
Pediatric Clinics of North America Aug 1985Malaria continues to present staggering morbidity and mortality statistics. In this well-detailed article, the authors examine the increased incidence of malaria in many... (Review)
Review
Malaria continues to present staggering morbidity and mortality statistics. In this well-detailed article, the authors examine the increased incidence of malaria in many areas, describe the malarial parasites, discuss the clinical course, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment, and address the issues of transfusion malaria, congenital malaria, immunity, chemoprophylaxis, and vaccine.
Topics: Adolescent; Adult; Antimalarials; Child; Child, Preschool; Female; Humans; Infant; Infant, Newborn; Liver; Malaria; Plasmodium; Plasmodium falciparum; Plasmodium malariae; Plasmodium vivax
PubMed: 3895138
DOI: 10.1016/s0031-3955(16)34861-1 -
Parasitology Research Jan 2019Malaria causes high levels of morbidity and mortality in human beings worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about half a million people die of... (Review)
Review
Malaria causes high levels of morbidity and mortality in human beings worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about half a million people die of this disease each year. Malaria is caused by six species of parasites belonging to the Plasmodium genus: P. falciparum, P. knowlesi, P. vivax, P. malariae, P. ovale curtisi, and P. ovale wallikeri. Currently, malaria is being kept under control with varying levels of elimination success in different countries. The development of new molecular tools as well as the use of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies and novel bioinformatic approaches has improved our knowledge of malarial epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, vaccine development, and surveillance strategies. In this work, the genetics and genomics of human malarias have been analyzed. Since the first P. falciparum genome was sequenced in 2002, various population-level genetic and genomic surveys, together with transcriptomic and proteomic studies, have shown the importance of molecular approaches in supporting malaria elimination.
Topics: Antigens, Protozoan; Drug Resistance; Genomics; High-Throughput Nucleotide Sequencing; Host-Parasite Interactions; Humans; Malaria; Malaria Vaccines; Plasmodium; Protozoan Proteins; Sequence Analysis, DNA
PubMed: 30402656
DOI: 10.1007/s00436-018-6127-9 -
Nature Jun 2023
Topics: Humans; Malaria; Models, Biological; Africa, Southern
PubMed: 37380676
DOI: 10.1038/d41586-023-02054-1 -
Journal of Vector Borne Diseases 2019Malaria elimination is a health priority of India for the national development and to meet UN sustainable development goals. In this article, an attempt has been made to... (Review)
Review
Malaria elimination is a health priority of India for the national development and to meet UN sustainable development goals. In this article, an attempt has been made to highlight some of the key issues that need attention and consideration. These include addressing the gaps in malaria burden and adopting District Health Information System (DHIS) for real time data gathering, transfer and analysis for rapid response. The article highlights threat to malaria elimination from human migration, asymptomatic malaria, P. malariae as a neglected species, need for updating vector information and devising strategies to control relay vector species especially in the high burden states of India. Additionally, scale-up of vector control interventions, integrated vector management and enhancement of vector control capacity and capability have been emphasized. It is suggested that process, performance and progress indicators for malaria elimination may be clearly spelt out and disseminated. What are the data needs for malaria elimination certification, must be well-understood? Lessons learnt by the countries that have eliminated malaria recently shall be of great value to malaria elimination efforts in India.
Topics: Animals; Asymptomatic Diseases; Disease Eradication; Disease Vectors; Human Migration; Humans; India; Malaria; Mosquito Control
PubMed: 31070162
DOI: 10.4103/0972-9062.257770 -
Journal of Medicine and Life Mar 2022Malaria is the most severe protozoan disease in the world. As a result of strict malaria control programs, malaria's epidemiological model has changed. Knowing this... (Review)
Review
Malaria is the most severe protozoan disease in the world. As a result of strict malaria control programs, malaria's epidemiological model has changed. Knowing this epidemiological model and its effects will help us predict and prevent a new epidemic. This research was conducted to review the epidemiological trend of malaria in the Kermanshah province of Iran and some of its effective factors. Data were extracted from the registers in the disease control unit of the province, national population census, and annual rainfall report. The data was processed by SPSS16. There has been an evident decrease in malaria cases over the last 30 years in Kermanshah. This decreasing trend began especially after 1994, and since then, just 6% of all cases have happened. Between 1990 to 1997, an epidemic occurred, and more than 80% of positive cases were registered in these years. malaria was the most common type (99.32%), and malaria was the second, with a very egregious difference (0.68%). The average age was 23.1 years, and men were infected twice more than women. There was a positive relation between annual rainfall level and positive malaria cases in these cities. After the major changes in malaria control programs in Kermanshah province, the number of positive cases fell noticeably, and now it is in the elimination stage. All cases of malaria were imported in the last years, and no resistance type was ever seen.
Topics: Adult; Cities; Epidemics; Female; Humans; Iran; Malaria; Malaria, Vivax; Male; Young Adult
PubMed: 35449995
DOI: 10.25122/jml-2021-0374 -
Proceedings of the Royal Society of... Jan 1979Malaria remains prevalent throughout tropical and subtropical regions and almost a third of the World's population is exposed to the risk of infection. There is... (Review)
Review
Malaria remains prevalent throughout tropical and subtropical regions and almost a third of the World's population is exposed to the risk of infection. There is currently a serious resurgence of the disease in Asia and Central America. The failure of global eradication measures based upon the use of insecticides and chemotherapy has resulted from difficulties of practical implementation compounded by the spread of insecticide and drug resistance. Repeated natural infection does not produce detectable resistance to the exo-erythrocytic cycle of malaria in man. Irradiated sporzoite vaccines do, however, induce stage specific immunity in murine malaria and in a proportion of human subjects. Vaccinated individuals remain susceptible to blood stage infection which causes clinical malaria. In addition the vaccine is unstable and must be administered by intravenous inoculation. Since neither sporogonic nor exo-erythrocytic parasite development is cyclical in human malarias, there is little prospect for vaccine production through cultivation of these stages. The inhabitants of hyperendaemic areas become increasingly resistant to malaria during childhood and adolescence, through the slow development of specific, acquired immunity to asexual blood stage parasites. Immunity is mediated by antibody, which blocks merozoite invasion of red cells, as well as by cell mediated mechanisms and non-specific cytotoxic agents. Vaccination with merozoites induces long lasting immunity of broad serological specificity active against the blood-stage of the parasite. Merozoite vaccines can be preserved by freeze drying and harvested from continuous cultures of blood stage parasites. The major problem in development of a human merozoite vaccine concerns the requirement for Freund's complete adjuvant which is not acceptable for man. The effective immunity induced by vaccination contrasts with the slow development of incomplete resistance which follows repeated natural infection. The latter is associated with the generation of immune suppressor cells, lymphoid cell mitogens and soluble antigens, and in some species by the occurrence of antigenic variation--all of which may favour parasite survival. It is probable that vaccination with non-viable antigen of appropriate composition, induces immune effector processes without activating mechanisms which allow parasites to escape the consequences of immunity. Many effective vaccines such as those against measles, poliomyelitis, tetanus and rabies are commercially available but barely used in the developing world. The affected nations cannot afford their purchase, nor do the means exist for their distribution. It follows that if a safe and effective malaria vaccine were to be developed, its bulk manufacture and administration would require massive international support and cooperation.
Topics: Animals; Haplorhini; Humans; Immunity; Malaria; Plasmodium; Vaccination
PubMed: 34157
DOI: 10.1098/rspb.1979.0001