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Journal of Biosciences Jun 2012Mammary gland stem cells (MaSC) have not been identified in spite of extensive research spanning over several decades. This has been primarily due to the complexity of... (Review)
Review
Mammary gland stem cells (MaSC) have not been identified in spite of extensive research spanning over several decades. This has been primarily due to the complexity of mammary gland structure and its development, cell heterogeneity in the mammary gland and the insufficient knowledge about MaSC markers. At present, Lin (-) CD29 (i) CD49f (i) CD24 (+/mod) Sca- 1 (-) cells of the mammary gland have been reported to be enriched with MaSCs. We suggest that the inclusion of stem cell markers like Oct4, Sox2, Nanog and the mammary gland differentiation marker BRCA-1 may further narrow down the search for MaSCs. In addition, we have discussed some of the other unresolved puzzles on the mammary gland stem cells, such as their similarities and/or differences with mammary cancer stem cells, use of milk as source of mammary stem cells and the possibility of in vitro differentiation of embryonic stem (ES) cells into functional mammary gland structures in this review. Nevertheless, it is the lack of identity for a MaSC that is curtailing the advances in some of the above and other related areas.
Topics: Animals; Cell Differentiation; Embryonic Stem Cells; Epithelial Cells; Female; Humans; Mammary Glands, Animal; Mammary Glands, Human; Mice; Neoplastic Stem Cells; Stem Cells
PubMed: 22581339
DOI: 10.1007/s12038-012-9200-z -
Cells Oct 2021Breast cancers display dynamic reprogrammed metabolic activities as cancers develop from premalignant lesions to primary tumors, and then metastasize. Numerous advances... (Review)
Review
Breast cancers display dynamic reprogrammed metabolic activities as cancers develop from premalignant lesions to primary tumors, and then metastasize. Numerous advances focus on how tumors develop pro-proliferative metabolic signaling that differs them from adjacent, non-transformed epithelial tissues. This leads to targetable oncogene-driven liabilities among breast cancer subtypes. Other advances demonstrate how microenvironments trigger stress-response at single-cell resolution. Microenvironmental heterogeneities give rise to cell regulatory states in cancer cell spheroids in three-dimensional cultures and at stratified terminal end buds during mammary gland morphogenesis, where stress and survival signaling juxtapose. The cell-state specificity in stress signaling networks recapture metabolic evolution during cancer progression. Understanding lineage-specific metabolic phenotypes in experimental models is useful for gaining a deeper understanding of subtype-selective breast cancer metabolism.
Topics: Adaptation, Physiological; Breast Neoplasms; Disease Progression; Female; Humans; Mammary Glands, Human; Morphogenesis; Stress, Physiological
PubMed: 34685621
DOI: 10.3390/cells10102641 -
Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton,... 2017The mouse mammary gland is widely used as a model for human breast cancer and has greatly added to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in breast... (Review)
Review
The mouse mammary gland is widely used as a model for human breast cancer and has greatly added to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in breast cancer development and progression. To fully appreciate the validity and limitations of the mouse model, it is essential to be aware of the similarities and also the differences that exist between the mouse mammary gland and the human breast. This introduction therefore describes the parallels and contrasts in mouse mammary gland and human breast morphogenesis from an early embryonic phase through to puberty, adulthood, pregnancy, parturition, and lactation, and finally the regressive stage of involution.
Topics: Animals; Breast; Breast Neoplasms; Female; Humans; Mammary Glands, Animal; Mammary Glands, Human; Organogenesis
PubMed: 27796946
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6475-8_1 -
Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta.... Sep 2022
Topics: Humans; Mammary Glands, Human
PubMed: 35523399
DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2022.119283 -
Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology Jun 2021
Topics: Developmental Biology; Female; Humans; Mammary Glands, Human
PubMed: 33893023
DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2021.03.015 -
Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology Jan 2014The mammary gland is a unique organ that undergoes extensive and profound changes during puberty, menstruation, pregnancy, lactation and involution. The changes that... (Review)
Review
The mammary gland is a unique organ that undergoes extensive and profound changes during puberty, menstruation, pregnancy, lactation and involution. The changes that take place during puberty involve large-scale proliferation and invasion of the fat-pad. During pregnancy and lactation, the mammary cells are exposed to signaling pathways that inhibit apoptosis, induce proliferation and invoke terminal differentiation. Finally, during involution the mammary gland is exposed to milk stasis, programmed cell death and stromal reorganization to clear the differentiated milk-producing cells. Not surprisingly, the signaling pathways responsible for bringing about these changes in breast cells are often subverted during the process of tumorigenesis. The STAT family of proteins is involved in every stage of mammary gland development, and is also frequently implicated in breast tumorigenesis. While the roles of STAT3 and STAT5 during mammary gland development and tumorigenesis are well studied, others members, e.g. STAT1 and STAT6, have only recently been observed to play a role in mammary gland biology. Continued investigation into the STAT protein network in the mammary gland will likely yield new biomarkers and risk factors for breast cancer, and may also lead to novel prophylactic or therapeutic strategies against breast cancer.
Topics: Animals; Carcinogenesis; Cell Differentiation; Cell Survival; Female; Humans; Mammary Glands, Animal; Mammary Glands, Human; STAT Transcription Factors; Signal Transduction
PubMed: 23541951
DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2013.03.014 -
Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and... Jun 2013We propose a new scenario for mammary evolution based on comparative review of early mammary development among mammals. Mammary development proceeds through homologous... (Review)
Review
We propose a new scenario for mammary evolution based on comparative review of early mammary development among mammals. Mammary development proceeds through homologous phases across taxa, but evolutionary modifications in early development produce different final morphologies. In monotremes, the mammary placode spreads out to form a plate-like mammary bulb from which more than 100 primary sprouts descend into mesenchyme. At their distal ends, secondary sprouts develop, including pilosebaceous anlagen, resulting in a mature structure in which mammary lobules and sebaceous glands empty into the infundibula of hair follicles; these structural triads (mammolobular-pilo-sebaceous units or MPSUs) represent an ancestral condition. In marsupials a flask-like mammary bulb elongates as a sprout, but then hollows out; its secondary sprouts include hair and sebaceous anlagen (MPSUs), but the hairs are shed during nipple formation. In some eutherians (cat, horse, human) MPSUs form at the distal ends of primary sprouts; pilosebaceous components either regress or develop into mature structures. We propose that a preexisting structural triad (the apocrine-pilo-sebaceous unit) was incorporated into the evolving mammary structure, and coupled to additional developmental processes that form the mammary line, placode, bulb and primary sprout. In this scenario only mammary ductal trees and secretory tissue derive from ancestral apocrine-like glands. The mammary gland appears to have coopted signaling pathways and genes for secretory products from even earlier integumentary structures, such as odontode (tooth-like) or odontode-derived structures. We speculate that modifications in signal use (such as PTHrP and BMP4) may contribute to taxonomic differences in MPSU development.
Topics: Animals; Biological Evolution; Female; Humans; Mammary Glands, Animal; Mammary Glands, Human
PubMed: 23681303
DOI: 10.1007/s10911-013-9290-8 -
Annual Review of Animal Biosciences Jan 2013Mammary glands are crucial to the reproductive strategy of mammals, and the milk of domesticated ruminants serves as an important source of nutrients for the human... (Review)
Review
Mammary glands are crucial to the reproductive strategy of mammals, and the milk of domesticated ruminants serves as an important source of nutrients for the human population. The majority of mammary gland development occurs postnatally, and the mammary gland undergoes cyclical periods of growth, differentiation, lactation, and regression that are coordinated to provide nutrients for offspring or are driven by strategies to manage reproduction and milk production of domesticated species. Growth and maintenance of the mammary epithelium depends on the function of mammary stem cells and progenitor cells. In this review, we provide an overview of postnatal mammary gland development, cyclical phases of mammary gland regression (regression during lactation and between successive lactations), and mammary stem cells and progenitor cells. Where possible, these processes are related to animal production and compared across species, particularly bovine, porcine, murine, and human.
Topics: Animals; Female; Humans; Mammary Glands, Animal; Mammary Glands, Human
PubMed: 25387016
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-animal-031412-103632 -
Developmental Cell Jul 2021Cell fate decisions are critical for adequate tissue development, maintenance and regeneration. In the mammary gland, epithelial cell fates are tightly controlled by the... (Review)
Review
Cell fate decisions are critical for adequate tissue development, maintenance and regeneration. In the mammary gland, epithelial cell fates are tightly controlled by the microenvironment. Here, we review how cell fate decisions are regulated by components of the microenvironment during mammary gland development and how pathological changes in the microenvironment can alter cell fates, leading to malignancy. Specifically, we describe the current understanding of how mammary cell fate is controlled and directed by three elements: the extracellular matrix, the immune microenvironment, and hormones-and how these elements can converge to create microenvironments that promote a fourth element: DNA damage.
Topics: Animals; Breast; Cell Differentiation; Cell Lineage; Cellular Microenvironment; Extracellular Matrix; Female; Humans; Mammary Glands, Animal; Mammary Glands, Human; Neoplasms; Tumor Microenvironment
PubMed: 34256927
DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2021.06.016 -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2004Development of the mammary gland in females is a dynamic, orchestrated process that occurs throughout postnatal development. Initiated during embryogenesis, epithelial... (Review)
Review
Development of the mammary gland in females is a dynamic, orchestrated process that occurs throughout postnatal development. Initiated during embryogenesis, epithelial cells advance into the underlying stromal matrix to form a primitive rudimentary structure. With the onset of puberty this anlage then responds to hormonal and local cues to rapidly establish a ductal network. Whereas in mice this network is relatively simple, in humans there is significantly more branching morphogenesis to develop terminal duct lobular unit structures. With the onset of pregnancy and associated changes in the hormonal and local environment, alveolar development progresses to establish a gland that is densely filled with alveolar structures by the end of pregnancy. Concomitantly, mammary epithelial cells within the gland begin to attain their unique ability to synthesize various milk constituents, such that by parturition, functional lactogenesis can be realized.
Topics: Animals; Breast; Endocrinology; Female; Humans; Mammary Glands, Animal; Mammary Glands, Human; Morphogenesis
PubMed: 15384579
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4757-4242-8_19