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International Journal of Environmental... Feb 2021The effect of the menstrual cycle on physical performance is being increasingly recognised as a key consideration for women's sport and a critical field for further... (Review)
Review
The effect of the menstrual cycle on physical performance is being increasingly recognised as a key consideration for women's sport and a critical field for further research. This narrative review explores the findings of studies investigating the effects of menstrual cycle phase on perceived and objectively measured performance in an athletic population. Studies examining perceived performance consistently report that female athletes identify their performance to be relatively worse during the early follicular and late luteal phases. Studies examining objective performance (using anaerobic, aerobic or strength-related tests) do not report clear, consistent effects of the impact of menstrual cycle phase on physical performance. Overall sport performance can be influenced by both perceived and physical factors. Hence, to optimise performance and management of eumenorrheic female athletes, there is a need for further research to quantify the impact of menstrual cycle phase on perceived and physical performance outcomes and to identify factors affecting variability in objective performance outcomes between studies.
Topics: Athletes; Female; Follicular Phase; Humans; Luteal Phase; Menstrual Cycle; Sports
PubMed: 33572406
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18041667 -
Sleep Medicine Clinics Jun 2022Sleep and circadian rhythms are altered in association with the hormonal changes in the menstrual cycle and in the presence of menstrual-associated disorders. The... (Review)
Review
Sleep and circadian rhythms are altered in association with the hormonal changes in the menstrual cycle and in the presence of menstrual-associated disorders. The magnitude of the effect varies, particularly for self-reported sleep quality, which worsens in some, but not all, women when premenstrual symptoms emerge. Importantly, women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) have an increased risk for sleep-disordered breathing (SDB), which should be treated to mitigate health impacts. Potential menstrual cycle variability in sleep quality, as well as upper airway resistance, should be considered when evaluating reproductive-age women. For research purposes, the impact of the menstrual cycle phase should be kept in mind when data are collected and, ideally, the phase should be documented. When comparing women with men, women of reproductive age should be studied in the early-mid follicular phase before there is potential influence from ovarian hormones.
Topics: Circadian Rhythm; Female; Follicular Phase; Humans; Male; Menstrual Cycle; Menstruation Disturbances; Sleep
PubMed: 35659080
DOI: 10.1016/j.jsmc.2022.02.004 -
Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) Dec 2022There is an increasing interest in female athletic performance-especially concerning the impact of the female menstrual cycle on training response. Indeed, fluctuations...
There is an increasing interest in female athletic performance-especially concerning the impact of the female menstrual cycle on training response. Indeed, fluctuations in female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone, during the menstrual cycle regulate protein metabolism and recovery processes in skeletal muscle and may thus impact exercise training-related outcomes. Studies demonstrate that anaerobic capacity and muscle strength are greatest during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, when estrogen levels peak. In addition, studies indicate that resistance training conducted in the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle (follicular phase-based resistance training) may be superior to luteal phase-based training in terms of enhancing muscle strength and mass. This raises the possibility that the physiological capabilities of skeletal muscle to adapt to exercise training are dependent on the menstrual cycle and can be important for female athletes in optimizing their training. In this paper, we critically review the current state of the art concerning the impact of menstrual cycle phase-based resistance training and highlight why follicular phase-based resistance training possibly is superior to luteal phase-based training in enhancing resistance training outcomes. Finally, we identify directions for further research.
Topics: Female; Humans; Luteal Phase; Resistance Training; Menstrual Cycle; Muscle Strength; Estrogens
PubMed: 35471634
DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01679-y -
Nutrition Reviews Jun 2023Females are often underrepresented in the scientific literature, but awareness of the need for female-specific research is increasing. Review articles have been... (Review)
Review
Females are often underrepresented in the scientific literature, but awareness of the need for female-specific research is increasing. Review articles have been published on the effects of the menstrual cycle on aspects of exercise performance and physiology, yet to date no research has reviewed the effect of menstrual cycle phase on dietary energy intake. Fluctuations in endogenous sex hormones across the menstrual cycle influence a range of physiological processes, including those involved in nutritional status. Observational research typically quantifies female athletes' nutritional intakes at a single time point; however, this may provide inaccurate information if dietary intake fluctuates across the menstrual cycle. Similarly, this may have implications for interventional research, where dietary intake is often poorly controlled or monitored. This review aimed to synthesize the published literature on dietary energy intakes of naturally menstruating females in various phases of the menstrual cycle. The review critiques the relevant literature in light of recent publications on good practice for female research, explores the impact of the menstrual cycle on energy intake, identifies gaps within the evidence base, and informs future research. Overall, energy intake appears to be lower in the follicular phase compared with the luteal phase, with a particular decrease in the days leading up to and including ovulation. The magnitude of these fluctuations is not yet clearly quantifiable and most likely varies, both between individuals, and from cycle to cycle. This review notes the lack of high-quality research investigating the energy intakes of females across the menstrual cycle, and the very limited data available for female athletes and others who undertake large amounts of physical activity. It also highlights the need for researchers to take into consideration anovulatory cycles and the potential effects of premenstrual disorders on dietary intake.
Topics: Female; Humans; Menstrual Cycle; Energy Intake; Luteal Phase; Diet; Eating
PubMed: 36367830
DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nuac094 -
British Journal of Sports Medicine Mar 2017
Topics: Biomedical Research; Exercise; Female; Humans; Menstrual Cycle; Sports
PubMed: 27267895
DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2016-096279 -
Reproductive Biomedicine Online Jun 2014Ovarian control of gonadotrophin secretion is normally achieved via the feedback mechanisms mediated by oestradiol and progesterone. Evidence has been provided that... (Review)
Review
Ovarian control of gonadotrophin secretion is normally achieved via the feedback mechanisms mediated by oestradiol and progesterone. Evidence has been provided that nonsteroidal substances, such as inhibin A and B, participate in the negative feedback control of FSH secretion. Another nonsteroidal ovarian substance is gonadotrophin surge-attenuating factor (GnSAF), the activity of which is particularly evident in women undergoing ovulation induction. Accumulating evidence has suggested that GnSAF plays a physiological role during the menstrual cycle. In particular, this factor antagonizes the sensitizing effect of oestradiol on the pituitary response to gonadotrophin-releasing hormone during the follicular phase of the cycle. A hypothesis has been developed that, in the late follicular phase, the activity of GnSAF is reduced and this facilitates the sensitizing effect of oestradiol on the pituitary, thus enforcing the massive discharge of gonadotrophins at the midcycle LH surge. The interaction of oestradiol, progesterone and GnSAF on the hypothalamic-pituitary system provides a novel approach to explain the mechanisms which control LH secretion during the normal menstrual cycle. The ovarian control of gonadotrophin secretion during the normal menstrual cycle is achieved via negative and positive feedback mechanisms. The steroids oestradiol and progesterone are the main regulators; however, nonsteroidal substances, such as inhibin A and inhibn B, also participate. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that another nonsteroidal ovarian substance, gonadotrophin surge-attenuating factor (GnSAF), plays a key role in the control of LH secretion during the follicular phase and at midcycle, providing thus a novel aspect in the ovarian control of gonadotrophin secretion during the human menstrual cycle. The ovarian control of gonadotrophin secretion during the normal menstrual cycle is achieved via negative and positive feedback mechanisms. The steroids oestradiol and progesterone are the main regulators; however, nonsteroidal substances, such as inhibin A and inhibn B, also participate. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that another nonsteroidal ovarian substance, gonadotrophin surge-attenuating factor (GnSAF), plays a key role in the control of LH secretion during the follicular phase and at midcycle, providing thus a novel aspect in the ovarian control of gonadotrophin secretion during the human menstrual cycle.
Topics: Estradiol; Feedback, Physiological; Female; Follicular Phase; Gonadal Hormones; Humans; Luteal Phase; Luteinizing Hormone; Menstrual Cycle; Pituitary Gland; Progesterone; Proteins
PubMed: 24745832
DOI: 10.1016/j.rbmo.2014.02.003 -
International Journal of Environmental... Jan 2021The aim of this study was to analyse the impact of sex hormone fluctuations throughout the menstrual cycle on cardiorespiratory response to high-intensity interval...
The aim of this study was to analyse the impact of sex hormone fluctuations throughout the menstrual cycle on cardiorespiratory response to high-intensity interval exercise in athletes. Twenty-one eumenorrheic endurance-trained females performed an interval running protocol in three menstrual cycle phases: early-follicular phase (EFP), late-follicular phase (LFP) and mid-luteal phase (MLP). It consisted of 8 × 3-min bouts at 85% of their maximal aerobic speed with 90-s recovery at 30% of their maximal aerobic speed. To verify menstrual cycle phase, we applied a three-step method: calendar-based counting, urinary luteinizing hormone measurement and serum hormone analysis. Mixed-linear model for repeated measures showed menstrual cycle impact on ventilatory (EFP: 78.61 ± 11.09; LFP: 76.45 ± 11.37; MLP: 78.59 ± 13.43) and heart rate (EFP: 167.29 ± 11.44; LFP: 169.89 ± 10.62; MLP: 169.89 ± 11.35) response to high-intensity interval exercise (F = 4.300; = 0.018 and F = 4.648; = 0.013, respectively). Oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, respiratory exchange ratio, breathing frequency, energy expenditure, relative perceived exertion and perceived readiness were unaltered by menstrual cycle phase. Most of the cardiorespiratory variables measured appear to be impassive by menstrual cycle phases throughout a high-intensity interval exercise in endurance-trained athletes. It seems that sex hormone fluctuations throughout the menstrual cycle are not high enough to disrupt tissues' adjustments caused by the high-intensity exercise. Nevertheless, HR based training programs should consider menstrual cycle phase.
Topics: Exercise; Female; Follicular Phase; Humans; Luteal Phase; Menstrual Cycle; Oxygen Consumption; Progesterone
PubMed: 33498274
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18030860 -
British Journal of Sports Medicine Sep 2020To explore athletes' past and current experiences and perceptions of the menstrual cycle in relation to its impact on sporting performance.
OBJECTIVES
To explore athletes' past and current experiences and perceptions of the menstrual cycle in relation to its impact on sporting performance.
METHODS
15 international female rugby players participated in individual semi-structured interviews (age: 24.5±6.2 years). All interviews were recorded and transcribed , resulting in 37 376 words of text for descriptive and thematic analysis. Inter-rater reliability checks resulted in a concordance of agreement of 83%.
RESULTS
Almost all athletes (93%) reported menstrual cycle-related symptoms. Thirty-three per cent perceived heavy menstrual bleeding and 67% considered these symptoms impaired their performances. Two-thirds of athletes self-medicated to alleviate symptoms. Thematic analysis generated 262 meaning units, 38 themes, 10 categories and 4 general dimensions. The four general dimensions were: (1) symptoms: physiological and psychological menstrual cycle-related symptoms such as dysmenorrhoea, flooding, reduced energy levels, worry, distraction, fluctuating emotions and reduced motivation; (2) impact: perceived impact of menstruation on different aspects of daily lives and performance including negative and neutral responses; (3) resolution: the methods/approaches in dealing with menstruation-related concerns including accepting, or adapting and managing symptoms with self-medication or expert treatment; (4) support: available support and comfortability in discussing menstrual cycle-related issues.
CONCLUSIONS
This study provides the first in-depth insight into athlete's experiences of the menstrual cycle and perceived impact on training and competition. It highlights individual responses to menstrual 'issues' and emphasises the need for clinicians and support staff to undertake menstrual cycle profiling, monitoring and continue to develop awareness, openness, knowledge and understanding of the menstrual cycle.
Topics: Activities of Daily Living; Adult; Athletic Performance; Competitive Behavior; Emotions; Female; Football; Humans; Menorrhagia; Menstrual Cycle; Menstruation; Motivation; Perception; Physical Conditioning, Human; Young Adult
PubMed: 32349965
DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2019-101486 -
Pediatrics Nov 2006Young patients and their parents often are unsure about what represents normal menstrual patterns, and clinicians also may be unsure about normal ranges for menstrual... (Review)
Review
Young patients and their parents often are unsure about what represents normal menstrual patterns, and clinicians also may be unsure about normal ranges for menstrual cycle length and amount and duration of flow through adolescence. It is important to be able to educate young patients and their parents regarding what to expect of a first period and about the range for normal cycle length of subsequent menses. It is equally important for clinicians to have an understanding of bleeding patterns in girls and adolescents, the ability to differentiate between normal and abnormal menstruation, and the skill to know how to evaluate young patients' conditions appropriately. Using the menstrual cycle as an additional vital sign adds a powerful tool to the assessment of normal development and the exclusion of pathological conditions.
Topics: Adolescent; Child; Female; Humans; Menstrual Cycle; Menstruation; Menstruation Disturbances; Time Factors
PubMed: 17079600
DOI: 10.1542/peds.2006-2481 -
Archives of Women's Mental Health Aug 2021Research examining relations between menstrual cycle phase and female addictive behaviors is accumulating. Theories suggest addictive behaviors may increase during... (Review)
Review
Research examining relations between menstrual cycle phase and female addictive behaviors is accumulating. Theories suggest addictive behaviors may increase during specific phases of the menstrual cycle resulting from cyclical fluctuations in hormones and affect. In line with self-medication theory, we predicted that addictive behaviors would increase premenstrually and menstrually, phases marked by elevations in negative affect, relative to the follicular and luteal phases. We also hypothesized, coinciding with reward-sensitivity theory, that addictive behaviors may increase during ovulation, a phase characterized by increased positive affect, compared to the same phases. This systematic review summarizes extant literature examining the menstrual cycle phase-addictive behavior relationship and underlying motivations. Articles pertaining to menstrual cycle phase and addictive behaviors within the PsycINFO, CINAL, and PubMED databases were screened to determine eligibility following PRISMA guidelines (n = 1568). Thirty-four articles examining alcohol use, cannabis use, nicotine use, caffeine use, and gambling behavior across menstrual cycle phase met inclusion criteria. Consistent with self-medication theory, strong evidence indicated that nicotine use increased premenstrually and menstrually. Other factors increasing both nicotine and alcohol use premenstrually and menstrually include having a premenstrual dysphoric disorder diagnosis or having premenstrual syndrome. Motivations for using alcohol and nicotine may too vary by menstrual cycle phase. Results were less consistent or understudied for other addictive behaviors and thus conclusions cannot be drawn. Menstrual cycle phase appears to be a female-specific factor affecting some addictive behaviors, particularly nicotine use, and should be considered when conducting addictive behavior research or clinical interventions for reproductive-aged females with addictive disorders.
Topics: Adult; Alcohol Drinking; Behavior, Addictive; Female; Humans; Luteal Phase; Menstrual Cycle; Premenstrual Syndrome
PubMed: 33404701
DOI: 10.1007/s00737-020-01094-0