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The Veterinary Record Apr 2019
Topics: Adenoviridae Infections; Animals; Conservation of Natural Resources; Poxviridae Infections; Sciuridae; Wales
PubMed: 31000618
DOI: 10.1136/vr.l1798 -
Veterinary Pathology Sep 2010Smallpox was one of the most devastating diseases known to humanity. Although smallpox was eradicated through a historically successful vaccination campaign, there is... (Review)
Review
Smallpox was one of the most devastating diseases known to humanity. Although smallpox was eradicated through a historically successful vaccination campaign, there is concern in the global community that either Variola virus (VARV), the causative agent of smallpox, or another species of Orthopoxvirus could be used as agents of bioterrorism. Therefore, development of countermeasures to Orthopoxvirus infection is a crucial focus in biodefense research, and these efforts rely on the use of various animal models. Smallpox typically presented as a generalized pustular rash with 30 to 40% mortality, and although smallpox-like syndromes can be induced in cynomolgus macaques with VARV, research with this virus is highly restricted; therefore, animal models with other orthopoxviruses have been investigated. Monkeypox virus causes a generalized vesiculopustular rash in rhesus and cynomolgus macaques and induces fatal systemic disease in several rodent species. Ectromelia virus has been extensively studied in mice as a model of orthopoxviral infection in its natural host. Intranasal inoculation of mice with some strains of vaccinia virus produces fatal bronchopneumonia, as does aerosol or intranasal inoculation of mice with cowpox virus. Rabbitpox virus causes pneumonia and fatal systemic infections in rabbits and can be naturally transmitted between rabbits by an aerosol route similar to that of VARV in humans. No single animal model recapitulates all known aspects of human Orthopoxvirus infections, and each model has its advantages and disadvantages. This article provides a brief review of the Orthopoxvirus diseases of humans and the key pathologic features of animal models of Orthopoxvirus infections.
Topics: Animals; Biological Warfare Agents; Disease Models, Animal; Humans; Inhalation Exposure; Orthopoxvirus; Poxviridae Infections; Viral Vaccines; Viremia
PubMed: 20682806
DOI: 10.1177/0300985810378649 -
Veterinary Microbiology Jan 2010Poxviruses compromise a group of long known important pathogens including some zoonotic members affecting lifestock animals and humans. While whole genome sequence... (Review)
Review
Poxviruses compromise a group of long known important pathogens including some zoonotic members affecting lifestock animals and humans. While whole genome sequence analysis started to shed light into the molecular mechanisms underlying host cell infection, viral replication as well as virulence, our understanding of poxvirus maintenance in nature and their transmission to humans is still poor. During the last two decades, reports on emerging human monkeypox outbreaks in Africa and North America, the increasing number of cowpox virus infections in cats, exotic animals and humans and cases of vaccinia virus infections in humans in South America and India reminded us that - beside the eradicated smallpox virus - there are other poxviruses that can cause harm to men. We start to learn that the host range of some poxviruses is way broader than initially thought and that mainly rodents seem to function as virus reservoir. The following review is aiming to provide an up-to-date overview on the epidemiology of zoonotic poxviruses, emphasizing orthopoxviruses. By outlining the current knowledge of poxvirus transmission, we hope to raise the awareness about modes of acquisition of infections and their proper diagnosis.
Topics: Africa; Americas; Animals; Animals, Wild; Cats; Disease Reservoirs; Humans; India; Poxviridae; Poxviridae Infections; Rodentia; Zoonoses
PubMed: 19828265
DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.08.026 -
Bulletin of the World Health... 1972Between October 1970 and May 1971, six cases of human infection with monkeypox virus were identified in Liberia, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone. Four of the cases were...
Between October 1970 and May 1971, six cases of human infection with monkeypox virus were identified in Liberia, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone. Four of the cases were confirmed by virus isolation and two were diagnosed on the basis of epidemiological and serological investigations. All the cases occurred in unvaccinated individuals.Post-infection serological studies showed high haemagglutination-inhibition and neutralizing titres to pox group virus in four of the cases. Repeated challenge vaccination of all cases with potent smallpox vaccine resulted in equivocal reactions.In all, 24 susceptible household contacts were exposed to the infected cases, but none developed disease. All the contacts subsequently responded to vaccination with a primary reaction, thus confirming their susceptibility and ruling out asymptomatic infection.
Topics: Adult; Antibodies; Child; Child, Preschool; Female; Hemagglutination Inhibition Tests; Humans; Liberia; Male; Neutralization Tests; Nigeria; Poxviridae; Poxviridae Infections; Sierra Leone
PubMed: 4340216
DOI: No ID Found -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024Smallpox was a significant cause of mortality for over three thousand years, amounting to 10% of deaths yearly. Edward Jenner discovered smallpox vaccination in 1796,... (Review)
Review
Smallpox was a significant cause of mortality for over three thousand years, amounting to 10% of deaths yearly. Edward Jenner discovered smallpox vaccination in 1796, which rapidly became a smallpox infection preventive practice throughout the world and eradicated smallpox infection by 1980. After smallpox eradication, monkeypox vaccines have been used primarily in research and in outbreaks in Africa, where the disease is endemic. In the present, the vaccines are being used for people who work with animals or in high-risk areas, as well as for healthcare workers treating patients with monkeypox. Among all orthopoxviruses (OPXV), monkeypox viral (MPXV) infection occurs mainly in cynomolgus monkeys, natural reservoirs, and occasionally causes severe multi-organ infection in humans, who were the incidental hosts. The first case of the present epidemic of MXPV was identified on May 7, 2022, and rapidly increased the number of cases. In this regard, the WHO declared the outbreak, an international public health emergency on July 23, 2022. The first monkeypox vaccine was developed in the 1960s by the US Army and was based on the vaccinia virus, which is also used in smallpox vaccines. In recent years, newer monkeypox vaccines have been developed based on other viruses such as Modified Vaccinia Ankara (MVA). These newer vaccines are safer and can provide longer-lasting immunity with fewer side effects. For the future, there is ongoing research to improve the current vaccines and to develop new ones. One notable advance has been the development of a recombinant vaccine that uses a genetically modified vaccinia virus to express monkeypox antigens. This vaccine has shown promising results in pre-clinical trials and is currently undergoing further testing in clinical trials. Another recent development has been the use of a DNA vaccine, which delivers genetic material encoding monkeypox antigens directly into cells. This type of vaccine has shown effectiveness in animal studies and is also undergoing clinical testing in humans. Overall, these recent advances in monkeypox vaccine development hold promise for protecting individuals against this potentially serious disease.
Topics: Humans; Animals; Smallpox Vaccine; Smallpox; History, 21st Century; History, 20th Century; Mpox (monkeypox); Poxviridae Infections; Poxviridae; Monkeypox virus; Vaccination; Viral Vaccines; Vaccine Development
PubMed: 38801584
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_17 -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024In the last 4 years, the world has experienced two pandemics of bat-borne viruses. Firstly, in 2019 the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic started and has been causing millions of... (Review)
Review
In the last 4 years, the world has experienced two pandemics of bat-borne viruses. Firstly, in 2019 the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic started and has been causing millions of deaths around the world. In 2022, a Monkeypox pandemic rose in various countries of the world. Those pandemics have witnessed movements and initiatives from healthcare and research institutions to establish a worldwide understanding to battle any future pandemics and biological threats. One Health concept is a modern, comprehensive, unifying ways to improve humans, animals, and ecosystems' health. This concept shows how much they are intertwined and related to one another, whether it is an environmental, or a pathological relation. This review aims to describe Poxviridae and its impact on the One Health concept, by studying the underlying causes of how poxviruses can affect the health of animals, humans, and environments. Reviewing the effect of disease transmission between animal to human, human to human, and animal to animal with pox viruses as a third party to achieve a total understanding of infection and viral transmission. Thus, contributing to enhance detection, diagnosis, research, and treatments regarding the application of One Health.
Topics: Humans; Animals; Poxviridae Infections; Poxviridae; One Health; COVID-19; Zoonoses; SARS-CoV-2; Pandemics; Viral Zoonoses
PubMed: 38801569
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_2 -
The Journal of General Virology Feb 2015Human monkeypox is a viral zoonosis caused by monkeypox virus, an orthopoxvirus (OPXV). The majority of human monkeypox cases have been reported in moist forested...
Human monkeypox is a viral zoonosis caused by monkeypox virus, an orthopoxvirus (OPXV). The majority of human monkeypox cases have been reported in moist forested regions in West and Central Africa, particularly in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). In this study we investigated zoonotic OPXV infection among wild animals in Zambia, which shares a border with DRC, to assess the geographical distribution of OPXV. We screened for OPXV antibodies in sera from non-human primates (NHPs), rodents and shrews by ELISA, and performed real-time PCR to detect OPXV DNA in spleen samples. Serological analysis indicated that 38 of 259 (14.7 %) rodents, 14 of 42 (33.3 %) shrews and 4 of 188 (2.1 %) NHPs had antibodies against OPXV. The OPXV DNA could not be detected in spleens from any animals tested. Our results indicated that wild animals living in rural human habitation areas of Zambia have been infected with OPXV.
Topics: Animals; Animals, Wild; Antibodies, Viral; DNA, Viral; Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay; Orthopoxvirus; Polymerase Chain Reaction; Poxviridae Infections; Primates; Rodentia; Seroepidemiologic Studies; Shrews; Spleen; Topography, Medical; Zambia; Zoonoses
PubMed: 25319753
DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.070219-0 -
Immunology and Cell Biology Jan 2008Even though smallpox has been eradicated, the threat of accidental or intentional release has highlighted the fact there is little consensus about correlates of... (Review)
Review
Even though smallpox has been eradicated, the threat of accidental or intentional release has highlighted the fact there is little consensus about correlates of protective immunity or immunity against re-infection with the causative poxvirus, variola virus (VARV). As the existing vaccine for smallpox has unacceptable rates of side effects and complications, new vaccines are urgently needed. Surrogate animal models of VARV infection in humans, including vaccinia virus (VACV) and ectromelia virus (ECTV) infection in mice, monkeypox virus (MPXV) infection in macaques have been used as tools to dissect the immune response to poxviruses. Mousepox, caused by ECTV, a natural mouse pathogen, is arguably the best surrogate small-animal model, as it shares many aspects of virus biology, pathology and clinical features with smallpox in humans. The requirements for recovery from a primary ECTV infection have been well characterized and include type I and II interferons, natural killer cells, CD4T cells, CD8T cell effector function and antibody. From a vaccine standpoint, it is imperative that the requirements for recovery from secondary infection are also identified. We have investigated host immune parameters in response to a secondary ECTV infection, and have identified that interferon and CD8T cell effector functions are not essential; however, T- and B-cell interaction and antibody are absolutely critical for recovery from a secondary challenge. The central role of antibody has been also been identified in the secondary response to other poxviruses. These findings have important clinical implications and would greatly assist the design of therapeutic interventions and new vaccines for smallpox.
Topics: Adolescent; Animals; Antibodies, Viral; CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes; Child; Genetic Predisposition to Disease; Humans; Immunity, Cellular; Lymphocyte Cooperation; Mice; Poxviridae; Poxviridae Infections; Rabbits; Rats; Smallpox Vaccine
PubMed: 17923850
DOI: 10.1038/sj.icb.7100118 -
Epidemiology and Infection Jun 1988
Review
Topics: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome; Animals; Disease Reservoirs; Humans; Poxviridae Infections; Smallpox; Vaccination
PubMed: 2837403
DOI: 10.1017/s0950268800067078 -
Viruses Aug 2017Cells have multiple means to induce apoptosis in response to viral infection. Poxviruses must prevent activation of cellular apoptosis to ensure successful replication.... (Review)
Review
Cells have multiple means to induce apoptosis in response to viral infection. Poxviruses must prevent activation of cellular apoptosis to ensure successful replication. These viruses devote a substantial portion of their genome to immune evasion. Many of these immune evasion products expressed during infection antagonize cellular apoptotic pathways. Poxvirus products target multiple points in both the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways, thereby mitigating apoptosis during infection. Interestingly, recent evidence indicates that poxviruses also hijack cellular means of eliminating apoptotic bodies as a means to spread cell to cell through a process called apoptotic mimicry. Poxviruses are the causative agent of many human and veterinary diseases. Further, there is substantial interest in developing these viruses as vectors for a variety of uses including vaccine delivery and as oncolytic viruses to treat certain human cancers. Therefore, an understanding of the molecular mechanisms through which poxviruses regulate the cellular apoptotic pathways remains a top research priority. In this review, we consider anti-apoptotic strategies of poxviruses focusing on three relevant poxvirus genera: , , and . All three genera express multiple products to inhibit both extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways with many of these products required for virulence.
Topics: Animals; Apoptosis; Caspases; Host-Pathogen Interactions; Humans; Immune Evasion; Leporipoxvirus; Molluscipoxvirus; Orthopoxvirus; Poxviridae; Poxviridae Infections; Signal Transduction; Viral Proteins; Virulence; Virus Replication
PubMed: 28786952
DOI: 10.3390/v9080215