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Hormone Molecular Biology and Clinical... Sep 2014Abstract Eating is a simple behavior with complex functions. The unconscious neuroendocrine process that stops eating and brings a meal to its end is called satiation.... (Review)
Review
Abstract Eating is a simple behavior with complex functions. The unconscious neuroendocrine process that stops eating and brings a meal to its end is called satiation. Energy homeostasis is mediated accomplished through the control of meal size via satiation. It involves neural integrations of phasic negative-feedback signals related to ingested food and tonic signals, such as those related to adipose tissue mass. Energy homeostasis is accomplished through adjustments in meal size brought about by changes in these satiation signals. The best understood meal-derived satiation signals arise from gastrointestinal nutrient sensing. Gastrointestinal hormones secreted during the meal, including cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide 1, and PYY, mediate most of these. Other physiological signals arise from activation of metabolic-sensing neurons, mainly in the hypothalamus and caudal brainstem. We review both classes of satiation signal and their integration in the brain, including their processing by melanocortin, neuropeptide Y/agouti-related peptide, serotonin, noradrenaline, and oxytocin neurons. Our review is not comprehensive; rather, we discuss only what we consider the best-understood mechanisms of satiation, with a special focus on normally operating physiological mechanisms.
Topics: Animals; Brain; Gastrointestinal Hormones; Gastrointestinal Tract; Humans; Neurosecretory Systems; Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Satiation
PubMed: 25390024
DOI: 10.1515/hmbci-2014-0010 -
The Journal of Nutrition Jun 2012Satiation and satiety are central concepts in the understanding of appetite control and both have to do with the inhibition of eating. Satiation occurs during an eating... (Review)
Review
Satiation and satiety are central concepts in the understanding of appetite control and both have to do with the inhibition of eating. Satiation occurs during an eating episode and brings it to an end. Satiety starts after the end of eating and prevents further eating before the return of hunger. Enhancing satiation and satiety derived from foodstuffs was perceived as a means to facilitate weight control. Many studies have examined the various sensory, cognitive, postingestive, and postabsorptive factors that can potentially contribute to the inhibition of eating. In such studies, careful attention to study design is crucial for correct interpretation of the results. Although sweetness is a potent sensory stimulus of intake, sweet-tasting products produce satiation and satiety as a result of their volume as well as their nutrient and energy content. The particular case of energy intake from fluids has generated much research and it is still debated whether energy from fluids is as satiating as energy ingested from solid foods. This review discusses the satiating power of foods and drinks containing nutritive and nonnutritive sweeteners. The brain mechanisms of food reward (in terms of "liking" and "wanting") are also addressed. Finally, we highlight the importance of reward homeostasis, which can help prevent eating in the absence of hunger, for the control of intake.
Topics: Beverages; Food; Humans; Nutritive Value; Satiety Response; Sweetening Agents
PubMed: 22573779
DOI: 10.3945/jn.111.149583 -
Revista Medica de Chile Sep 2017The study of the factors that regulate high energy food intake is especially relevant nowadays due to the high prevalence of overweight and obesity. Food intake... (Review)
Review
The study of the factors that regulate high energy food intake is especially relevant nowadays due to the high prevalence of overweight and obesity. Food intake regulation can be divided in two basic processes, namely satiation and satiety. Satiation is the process that determines the moment in which feeding stops and regulates the amount of ingested food during a single meal. Satiety is the interval between meals and regulates the time elapsed between two meals. The longer the interval, the lower energy intake. Each of these processes are regulated by different factors, which are here reviewed.
Topics: Appetite Regulation; Eating; Energy Intake; Humans; Satiation; Satiety Response; Sensation; Time Factors
PubMed: 29424405
DOI: 10.4067/s0034-98872017000901172 -
Nutrients Apr 2021The mouth is the first part of the gastrointestinal tract. During mastication sensory signals from the mouth, so-called oro-sensory exposure, elicit physiological... (Review)
Review
The mouth is the first part of the gastrointestinal tract. During mastication sensory signals from the mouth, so-called oro-sensory exposure, elicit physiological signals that affect satiation and food intake. It has been established that a longer duration of oro-sensory exposure leads to earlier satiation. In addition, foods with more intense sweet or salty taste induce earlier satiation compared to foods that are equally palatable, but with lower taste intensity. Oro-sensory exposure to food affects satiation by direct signaling via the brainstem to higher cortical regions involved in taste and reward, including the nucleus accumbens and the insula. There is little evidence that oro-sensory exposure affects satiation indirectly through either hormone responses or gastric signals. Critical brain areas for satiation, such as the brainstem, should be studied more intensively to better understand the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the process of satiation. Furthermore, it is essential to increase the understanding of how of highly automated eating behaviors, such as oral processing and eating rate, are formed during early childhood. A better understanding of the aforementioned mechanisms provides fundamental insight in relation to strategies to prevent overconsumption and the development of obesity in future generations.
Topics: Animals; Brain; Humans; Models, Biological; Mouth; Satiation; Sensation; Taste
PubMed: 33919044
DOI: 10.3390/nu13051391 -
Nutrients Apr 2020Food ingestion induces a metered response of the digestive system. Initially, the upper digestive system reacts to process and extract meal substrates. Later, meal... (Review)
Review
Food ingestion induces a metered response of the digestive system. Initially, the upper digestive system reacts to process and extract meal substrates. Later, meal residues not absorbed in the small bowel, pass into the colon and activate the metabolism of resident microbiota. Food consumption also induces sensations that arise before ingestion (e.g., anticipatory reward), during ingestion (e.g., gustation), and most importantly, after the meal (i.e., the postprandial experience). The postprandial experience involves homeostatic sensations (satiety, fullness) with a hedonic dimension (digestive well-being, mood). The factors that determine the postprandial experience are poorly understood, despite their potential role in personalized diets and healthy eating habits. Current data suggest that the characteristics of the meal (amount, palatability, composition), the activity of the digestive system (suited processing), and the receptivity of the eater (influenced by multiple conditioning factors) may be important in this context.
Topics: Affect; Digestion; Eating; Feeding Behavior; Gastrointestinal Microbiome; Humans; Postprandial Period; Satiation; Satiety Response
PubMed: 32252402
DOI: 10.3390/nu12040986 -
Physiology & Behavior Sep 2018This article offers a brief review of the state of understanding of the role of oral processing and food texture on satiation. Food texture is a sensory property that... (Review)
Review
This article offers a brief review of the state of understanding of the role of oral processing and food texture on satiation. Food texture is a sensory property that contributes to the manner in which food transits the oral cavity. Several studies have shown the impact of oral transit time on satiation, with longer times relating to enhanced satiation response. Recent studies have also begun to show an impact of texture on satiation independent of oral processing time. There are still many questions to answer before the underlying mechanisms of these impacts are understood.
Topics: Eating; Humans; Mouth; Satiation; Sensation
PubMed: 29550537
DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.03.015 -
Food & Function Aug 2017Expectations of satiation are beliefs about the extent to which food is expected to deliver fullness and expectation of satiety relates to the extent to which food is... (Review)
Review
Expectations of satiation are beliefs about the extent to which food is expected to deliver fullness and expectation of satiety relates to the extent to which food is expected to give respite from hunger and to inhibit further eating. In recent years they have increasingly been investigated because of the interest in how they can modulate energy intake. The present paper reviews the body of research into concepts underlying these expectations, measurement methods and the factors influencing their perception, with special focus on the sensory features and composition of foods. Food science and technology can provide tools and knowledge to aid in designing food with enhanced expectations of satiation and satiety.
Topics: Animals; Appetite; Eating; Food Analysis; Humans; Satiation; Satiety Response
PubMed: 28686245
DOI: 10.1039/c7fo00307b -
Physiology & Behavior Apr 2004Satiation for food comprises the physiological processes that result in the termination of eating. Satiation is evoked by physical and chemical qualities of ingested... (Review)
Review
Satiation for food comprises the physiological processes that result in the termination of eating. Satiation is evoked by physical and chemical qualities of ingested food, which trigger afferent signals to the brain from multiple sites in the GI tract, including the stomach, the proximal small intestine, the distal small intestine and the colon. The physiological nature of each signal's contribution to satiation and overall control of food intake is likely to vary, depending on the level of the GI tract from which the signal arises. This article is a critical, though non-exhaustive, review of our current understanding of the mechanisms and adaptive value of satiation signals from the stomach and intestine.
Topics: Animals; Digestive System Physiological Phenomena; Food; Humans; Intestines; Satiation; Signal Transduction
PubMed: 15159171
DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.02.012 -
The American Journal of Clinical... Jun 2004This review's objective is to give a critical summary of studies that focused on physiologic measures relating to subjectively rated appetite, actual food intake, or... (Review)
Review
This review's objective is to give a critical summary of studies that focused on physiologic measures relating to subjectively rated appetite, actual food intake, or both. Biomarkers of satiation and satiety may be used as a tool for assessing the satiating efficiency of foods and for understanding the regulation of food intake and energy balance. We made a distinction between biomarkers of satiation or meal termination and those of meal initiation related to satiety and between markers in the brain [central nervous system (CNS)] and those related to signals from the periphery to the CNS. Various studies showed that physicochemical measures related to stomach distension and blood concentrations of cholecystokinin and glucagon-like peptide 1 are peripheral biomarkers associated with meal termination. CNS biomarkers related to meal termination identified by functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography are indicators of neural activity related to sensory-specific satiety. These measures cannot yet serve as a tool for assessing the satiating effect of foods, because they are not yet feasible. CNS biomarkers related to satiety are not yet specific enough to serve as biomarkers, although they can distinguish between extreme hunger and fullness. Three currently available biomarkers for satiety are decreases in blood glucose in the short term (<5 min), which have been shown to be involved in meal initiation; leptin changes during longer-term (>2-4 d) negative energy balance; and ghrelin concentrations, which have been implicated in both short-term and long-term energy balance. The next challenge in this research area is to identify food ingredients that have an effect on biomarkers of satiation, satiety, or both. These ingredients may help consumers to maintain their energy intake at a level consistent with a healthy body weight.
Topics: Animals; Appetite; Biomarkers; Brain; Diet; Energy Metabolism; Humans; Satiation; Stomach; Thermogenesis
PubMed: 15159223
DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/79.6.946 -
Physiology & Behavior Aug 2004Gerry Smith's thoughtful survey in his book Satiation (1998) outlined the established principles of gastric and intestinal satiation and delineated several questions... (Review)
Review
Gerry Smith's thoughtful survey in his book Satiation (1998) outlined the established principles of gastric and intestinal satiation and delineated several questions still requiring clarification. Experiments since the time of the review have addressed some of these questions. A synthesis of the principles outlined in the Gerry Smith survey and the subsequent experimental results indicates that the direct controls, or neural feedback signals from the GI tract, that limit meal size consist of gastric volumetric signals and intestinal nutritive signals. The two types of negative feedback synergize in the control of feeding, and both are carried by vagal afferents.
Topics: Animals; Appetite Regulation; Eating; Feeding Behavior; Gastrointestinal Contents; Intestines; Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Physical Stimulation; Satiation; Satiety Response; Stomach
PubMed: 15234593
DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.04.037