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Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 2000The introduction of contraceptive technologies has resulted in the separation of sex and procreation. The introduction of new reproductive technologies (mainly IVF and... (Review)
Review
The introduction of contraceptive technologies has resulted in the separation of sex and procreation. The introduction of new reproductive technologies (mainly IVF and embryo transfer) has led not only to the separation of procreation and sex, but also to the redefinition of the terms mother and family. For the purpose of this essay, I will distinguish between: 1. the genetic mother--the donor of the egg; 2. the gestational mother--she who bears and gives birth to the baby; 3. the social mother--the woman who raises the child. This essay will deal only with the form of gestational surrogacy in which the genetic parents intend to be the social parents, and the surrogate mother has no genetic relationship to the child she bears and delivers. I will raise questions regarding medical ethical aspects of surrogacy and the obligation(s) of the physician(s) to the parties involved. I will argue that the gestational surrogate is "a womb to rent," that there is great similarity between gestational commercial surrogacy and organ transplant marketing. Furthermore, despite claims to freedom of choice and free marketing, I will claim that gestational surrogacy is a form of prostitution and slavery, exploitation of the poor and needy by those who are better off. The right to be a parent, although not constitutional, is intuitive and deeply rooted. However, the issue remains whether this right overrules all other rights, and at what price to the parties involved. I will finally raise the following provocative question to society: In the interim period between today's limited technology and tomorrow's extra-corporeal gestation technology (ectogenesis), should utilizing females in PVS (persistent vehetative state) for gestational surrogacy be socially acceptable/permissible--provided they have left permission in writing?
Topics: Depersonalization; Economics; Ethics, Medical; Female; Humans; Living Donors; Persistent Vegetative State; Pregnancy; Prenatal Care; Surrogate Mothers
PubMed: 10967951
DOI: 10.1023/a:1009956218800 -
Human Reproduction (Oxford, England) Jan 2014What impact does surrogacy have on the surrogates' own children?
STUDY QUESTION
What impact does surrogacy have on the surrogates' own children?
SUMMARY ANSWER
The children of surrogate mothers do not experience any negative consequences as a result of their mother's decision to be a surrogate, irrespective of whether or not the surrogate uses her own egg.
STUDY DESIGN, SIZE AND DURATION
Participants were recruited as part of a study of the long-term effects of surrogacy for surrogates and their family members. Data were collected from 36 children of surrogates at a single time point.
PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS
Participants whose mother had been a surrogate 5-15 years prior to interview and who were aged over 12 years were eligible to take part. Thirty-six participants (14 male and 22 female) aged 12-25 years were interviewed (response rate = 52%). Questionnaires assessing psychological health and family functioning were administered.
MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE
Forty-four per cent (15) of participants' mothers had undergone gestational surrogacy, 39% (14) had used their own egg (genetic surrogacy) and 19% (7) had completed both types of surrogacy. Most surrogates' children (86%, 31) had a positive view of their mother's surrogacy. Forty-seven per cent (17) of children were in contact with the surrogacy child and all reported good relationships with him/her. Forty per cent (14) of children referred to the child as a sibling or half-sibling and this did not differ between genetic and gestational surrogacy. Most children (89%, 32), reported a positive view of family life, with all enjoying spending time with their mother. Mean scores on the questionnaire assessments of psychological health and self-esteem were within the normal range and did not differ by surrogacy type.
LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION
The sample size for this study was relatively small and not all children chose to take part, therefore their views cannot be known. Nevertheless, this is the first study to assess the experiences of surrogacy from the perspective of the surrogates' own children. There may be some bias from the inclusion of siblings from the same family.
WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS
Findings of this study show that family relationships within the surrogate's own family are good and that the children are not negatively affected as a result of their mother's decision to be a surrogate. These results are of importance to counsellors and support groups offering advice to surrogates and intended parents.
STUDY FUNDING, COMPETING INTERESTS
This work was supported by the Economic and Social Research Council (grant number ES/I009221/1). None of the authors has any conflict of interest to declare.
Topics: Adolescent; Child; Family; Family Relations; Female; Humans; Male; Parent-Child Relations; Pregnancy; Self Concept; Surrogate Mothers
PubMed: 24256993
DOI: 10.1093/humrep/det410 -
Medicine, Health Care, and Philosophy Aug 2015An Irish surrogacy case from 2013 illustrates how negotiations of the mother's identity in a given national and legal context are drawing on novel scientific...
An Irish surrogacy case from 2013 illustrates how negotiations of the mother's identity in a given national and legal context are drawing on novel scientific perspectives, at a time when the use of new biotechnological possibilities (such as IVF) is becoming more widespread and commonplace. The Roman dictum, 'Mater Semper Certa Est' (the mother is always certain, i.e. proven by giving birth) is contested by the finding of this Irish court, in which the judge made a declaration of parentage stating that the genetic parents of twins born using a surrogate (the mother's sister) were the parents. This article critically examines the normative background assumptions involved in this ruling. It will argue that the particular deployment of arguments from genetics and epigenetics in this court case produces a naturalization of the mother's identity that is inherently reductive. A second surrogacy case is also examined, this time regarding the rights of a woman of Irish nationality to receive paid maternity leave or paid leave similar to adoptive leave after the birth of her daughter to a surrogate mother in the US state of California. This case, which was brought to the Equality Tribunal in Ireland and decided by the Court of Justice of the European Union, is used to illustrate the possible ramifications of conflicting definitions of motherhood in the legal system. In concluding, this article argues for the development and deployment of a more complex understanding of the evolving state of motherhood within the courts, in keeping with developments in the IVF industry and the various new mother-relations it makes possible.
Topics: Birth Certificates; Contracts; Epigenomics; Female; Human Rights; Humans; Ireland; Maternal-Fetal Exchange; Mothers; Pregnancy; Surrogate Mothers
PubMed: 25344026
DOI: 10.1007/s11019-014-9605-6 -
Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine Oct 2014Surrogacy is rising in profile and prevalence, which means that perinatal care providers face an increasing likelihood of encountering a case in their clinical practice.... (Review)
Review
Surrogacy is rising in profile and prevalence, which means that perinatal care providers face an increasing likelihood of encountering a case in their clinical practice. Rapidly expanding scientific knowledge (for example, fetal programming) and technological advances (for example, prenatal screening and diagnosis) pose challenges in the management of the surrogate mother; in particular, they could exacerbate conflict between the interests of the baby, the surrogate mother, and the intending parent(s). Navigating these often-tranquil-but-sometimes-stormy waters is facilitated if perinatal care providers are aware of the relevant ethical, legal, and service delivery issues. This paper describes the ethical and legal context of surrogacy, and outlines key clinical practice issues in management of the surrogate mother.
Topics: Female; Humans; Male; Obstetrics; Parents; Pregnancy; Surrogate Mothers
PubMed: 25175320
DOI: 10.1016/j.siny.2014.08.004 -
The New York Times on the Web Sep 1992
Topics: Child, Unwanted; Congenital, Hereditary, and Neonatal Diseases and Abnormalities; Contracts; Female; Humans; Insemination, Artificial; Jurisprudence; Lawyers; Liability, Legal; Malpractice; Sexually Transmitted Diseases; Spermatozoa; Surrogate Mothers; Tissue Donors; United States
PubMed: 11659465
DOI: No ID Found -
Gynecologie, Obstetrique, Fertilite &... Jun 2024
Topics: Humans; France; Surrogate Mothers; Female; Pregnancy; Altruism
PubMed: 38340981
DOI: 10.1016/j.gofs.2024.02.001 -
North Eastern Reporter. Second Series Jan 1998
Topics: Adoption; Contracts; Fathers; Fees and Charges; Female; Humans; Insemination, Artificial; Jurisprudence; Massachusetts; Parent-Child Relations; Rhode Island; Surrogate Mothers
PubMed: 12041242
DOI: No ID Found -
Human Reproduction Update 2003Gestational surrogacy is a treatment option available to women with certain clearly defined medical problems, usually an absent uterus, to help them have their own... (Review)
Review
Gestational surrogacy is a treatment option available to women with certain clearly defined medical problems, usually an absent uterus, to help them have their own genetic children. IVF allows the creation of embryos from the gametes of the commissioning couple and subsequent transfer of these embryos to the uterus of a surrogate host. The indications for treatment include absent uterus, recurrent miscarriage, repeated failure of IVF and certain medical conditions. Treatment by gestational surrogacy is straightforward and follows routine IVF procedures for the commissioning mother, with the transfer of fresh or frozen-thawed embryos to the surrogate host. The results of treatment are good, as would be expected from the transfer of embryos derived from young women and transferred to fit, fertile women who are also young. Clinical pregnancy rates achieved in large series are up to 40% per transfer and series have reported 60% of hosts achieving live births. The majority of ethical or legal problems that have arisen out of surrogacy have been from natural or partial surrogacy arrangements. The experience of gestational surrogacy has been largely complication-free and early results of the follow-up of children, commissioning couples and surrogates are reassuring. In conclusion, gestational surrogacy arrangements are carried out in a few European countries and in the USA. The results of treatment are satisfactory and the incidence of major ethical or legal complications has been limited. IVF surrogacy is therefore a successful treatment for a small group of women who would otherwise not be able to have their own genetic children.
Topics: AIDS Serodiagnosis; Counseling; Female; Fertilization in Vitro; Guidelines as Topic; Humans; Male; Patient Selection; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Rate; Religion; Reproductive Techniques, Assisted; Surrogate Mothers; Terminology as Topic; United Kingdom; United States
PubMed: 14640380
DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dmg033 -
Cuadernos de Bioetica : Revista Oficial... 2017The subrogated motherhood takes place when an embryo created by in vitro fertilization (IVF) technology is implanted in a surrogate, sometimes called a gestational...
The subrogated motherhood takes place when an embryo created by in vitro fertilization (IVF) technology is implanted in a surrogate, sometimes called a gestational mother, by means a contract with her. It can imply to natural families (woman and man) with or without infertility problems, or to monoparental or biparental families of the same sex. Concerning the origin of the gametes used in the IVF emerges different implications on the genetic relationship of the resulting child with the surrogate and the future parents. The subrogated motherhood was initially considered an option to solve infertility problems. Nevertheless this practice has become a possible and attractive option as a source of economic resources for poor women. The cases of benefit of a pregnancy without mediating a contract are exceptional and they are not properly cases of ″subrogated maternity″ but of ″altruistic maternity″ and must be considered as heterologous in vitro fertilization. In this article are analyzed the medical, genetic and bioethics aspects of this new derivation of the fertilization in vitro. As points of special attention are considered the following questions: Is it the surrogate motherhood used preferably to solve infertility problems? Is not this actually a new form of exploitation of the woman? Does not suppose an attack to the natural family? Does not suppose in addition an attack to the dignity of the human being?
Topics: Altruism; Bioethical Issues; Contracts; Economics; Family Characteristics; Female; Fertilization in Vitro; Humans; Infertility; Male; Personhood; Pregnancy; Surrogate Mothers
PubMed: 28621958
DOI: No ID Found -
The Virtual Mentor : VM Jan 2014
Topics: Child; Contracts; Disclosure; Female; Humans; Physicians; Pregnancy; Prenatal Care; Surrogate Mothers
PubMed: 24433656
DOI: 10.1001/virtualmentor.2014.16.01.ecas2-1401