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Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024Monkeypox (Mpox) virus is a zoonotic disease that was recently declared a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) by the World Health Organization... (Review)
Review
Monkeypox (Mpox) virus is a zoonotic disease that was recently declared a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) by the World Health Organization (WHO). Symptoms of Mpox include fever, headache, muscle pain, and a rash which starts on the face and spreads to the rest of the body. The stigma surrounding the Mpox virus has been one of the greatest challenges in dealing with the disease. People with Mpox have been often shunned by their communities, and many are afraid to seek medical care for fear of ostracism. For those affected by the virus, this stigma can significantly impact their mental health and quality of life. It is further fueled by misinformation and societal norms. Hence, a multifaceted approach that includes education, awareness campaigns, and community engagement is needed to overcome the stigma associated with Mpox. Effective communication strategies are critical to the dispelling of rumors and the reduction of fear. Interventional measures need to be shaped according to the needs of those affected.
Topics: Humans; Social Stigma; Animals; Mpox (monkeypox); Monkeypox virus; Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice
PubMed: 38801592
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_25 -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024Despite the significant advancement of new tools and technology in the field of medical biology and molecular biology, the challenges in the treatment of most cancer... (Review)
Review
Despite the significant advancement of new tools and technology in the field of medical biology and molecular biology, the challenges in the treatment of most cancer types remain constant with the problem of developing resistance toward drugs and no substantial enhancement in the overall survival rate of cancer patients. Immunotherapy has shown the most promising results in different clinical and preclinical trials in the treatment of various cancer due to its higher efficacy and minimum collateral damage in many cancer patients as compared to conventional chemotherapy and radiotherapy. An oncolytic virus is a new class of immunotherapy that can selectively replicate in tumor cells and destroy them by the process of cell lysis while exerting minimum or no effect on a normal cell. Besides this, it can also activate the host's innate immune system, which generates an anti-tumor immune response to eliminate the tumor cells. Several wild types and genetically modified viruses have been investigated to show oncolytic behavior. Vaccinia virus has been studied extensively and tested for its promising oncolytic nature on various model systems and clinical trials. Recently, several engineered vaccinia viruses have been developed that express the desired genes encoded for selective penetration in tumor cells and enhanced activation of the immune system for generating anti-tumor immunity. However, further investigation is required to prove their potential and enhance their therapeutic efficacy.
Topics: Humans; Oncolytic Virotherapy; Neoplasms; Oncolytic Viruses; Animals; Poxviridae; Immunotherapy; Vaccinia virus
PubMed: 38801591
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_24 -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024Monkeypox (mpox), a zoonotic disease caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV), poses a significant public health threat with the potential for global dissemination beyond... (Review)
Review
Monkeypox (mpox), a zoonotic disease caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV), poses a significant public health threat with the potential for global dissemination beyond its endemic regions in Central and West Africa. This study explores the multifaceted aspects of monkeypox, covering its epidemiology, genomics, travel-related spread, mass gathering implications, and economic consequences. Epidemiologically, mpox exhibits distinct patterns, with variations in age and gender susceptibility. Severe cases can arise in immunocompromised individuals, underscoring the importance of understanding the factors contributing to its transmission. Genomic analysis of MPXV highlights its evolutionary relationship with the variola virus and vaccinia virus. Different MPXV clades exhibit varying levels of virulence and transmission potential, with Clade I associated with higher mortality rates. Moreover, the role of recombination in MPXV evolution remains a subject of interest, with implications for understanding its genetic diversity. Travel and mass gatherings play a pivotal role in the spread of monkeypox. The ease of international travel and increasing globalization have led to outbreaks beyond African borders. The economic ramifications of mpox outbreaks extend beyond public health. Direct treatment costs, productivity losses, and resource-intensive control efforts can strain healthcare systems and economies. While vaccination and mitigation strategies have proven effective, the cost-effectiveness of routine vaccination in non-endemic countries remains a subject of debate. This study emphasizes the role of travel, mass gatherings, and genomics in its spread and underscores the economic impacts on affected regions. Enhancing surveillance, vaccination strategies, and public health measures are essential in controlling this emerging infectious disease.
Topics: Mpox (monkeypox); Humans; Disease Outbreaks; Monkeypox virus; Global Health; Travel; Animals; Rare Diseases; Communicable Diseases, Emerging; Public Health; Female; Zoonoses; Male
PubMed: 38801590
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_23 -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024Monkeypox has been endemic in Congo and Nigeria for at least five decades. Since early May 2022, there have been numerous unprecedented outbreaks throughout the world in... (Review)
Review
Monkeypox has been endemic in Congo and Nigeria for at least five decades. Since early May 2022, there have been numerous unprecedented outbreaks throughout the world in places without any previously reported cases. While a majority of the diagnosed cases have been within Europe and the Americas, several cases have occurred in non-endemic African countries. As of December 2022, 82,999 cases had been reported globally, prompting concern among the World Health Organization (WHO) members. While the WHO has not labeled this epidemic a Global Health Emergency, member states have begun to put forward plans to consolidate their emergency vaccine stockpiles and share the limited number of vaccines made by the single FDA-approved manufacturer, Bavarian Nordic. Many countries are concerned about how vaccines will be shared. Some of the larger donor States are positioned to be the biggest beneficiaries of vaccine sharing, while States from areas that have been suffering from the virus since the 1970s have not been allocated any. This pattern of vaccine distribution echoes that seen during the early part of the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to the similarities between Monkeypox and Smallpox, contact precautions and vaccination seem to be effective strategies to combat its rapid spread. We aim to evaluate how an eradication program model similar to that used for Smallpox can be applied to Monkeypox, and whether it can address vaccine inequity. To do this, we use a multi-pronged approach targeting disease surveillance, vaccine awareness, manufacturing, cost, and distribution strategies.
Topics: Humans; Mpox (monkeypox); Global Health; Smallpox Vaccine; Monkeypox virus; Vaccination; World Health Organization; Healthcare Disparities
PubMed: 38801587
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_20 -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024The smallpox infection with the variola virus was one of the most fatal disorders until a global eradication was initiated in the twentieth century. The last cases were... (Review)
Review
The smallpox infection with the variola virus was one of the most fatal disorders until a global eradication was initiated in the twentieth century. The last cases were reported in Somalia 1977 and as a laboratory infection in the UK 1978; in 1980, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared smallpox for extinct. The smallpox virus with its very high transmissibility and mortality is still a major biothreat, because the vaccination against smallpox was stopped globally in the 1980s. For this reason, new antivirals (cidofovir, brincidofovir, and tecovirimat) and new vaccines (ACAM2000, LC16m8 and Modified Vaccine Ankara MVA) were developed. For passive immunization, vaccinia immune globulin intravenous (VIGIV) is available. Due to the relationships between orthopox viruses such as vaccinia, variola, mpox (monkeypox), cowpox, and horsepox, the vaccines (LC16m8 and MVA) and antivirals (brincidofovir and tecovirimat) could also be used in the mpox outbreak with positive preliminary data. As mutations can result in drug resistance against cidofovir or tecovirimat, there is need for further research. Further antivirals (NIOCH-14 and ST-357) and vaccines (VACΔ6 and TNX-801) are being developed in Russia and the USA. In conclusion, further research for treatment and prevention of orthopox infections is needed and is already in progress. After a brief introduction, this chapter presents the smallpox and mpox disease and thereafter full overviews on antiviral treatment and vaccination including the passive immunization with vaccinia immunoglobulins.
Topics: Smallpox; Humans; Antiviral Agents; Smallpox Vaccine; Mpox (monkeypox); Vaccination; Variola virus; Animals; Cytosine; Monkeypox virus; Immunization, Passive; Organophosphonates; Isoindoles; Cidofovir; Immunoglobulins, Intravenous; Benzamides; Phthalimides
PubMed: 38801586
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_19 -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024Monkeypox virus (MPXV) of poxviridae family causes a zoonotic disease called monkeypox (Mpox). MPXV cases have a fatality ratio ranging from 0 to 11% globally and have... (Review)
Review
Monkeypox virus (MPXV) of poxviridae family causes a zoonotic disease called monkeypox (Mpox). MPXV cases have a fatality ratio ranging from 0 to 11% globally and have been more prevalent in children. There are three generations of smallpox vaccines that protect against MPXV. First and second generation of the vaccinia virus (VACV) vaccine protects MPXV. However, various adverse side effects were associated with the first and second generations of vaccines. In contrast, the Modified Vaccinia Ankara-Bavarian Nordic (MVA-BN) replication-incompetent vaccine shows fewer adverse effects and a significant amount of neutralizing antibodies in mammalian cells. A third-generation Modified Vaccinia Ankara-Bavarian Nordic (MVA-BN) was approved to prevent Mpox in 2019. Recently, MVA-BN-based Imvanex, Imvamune, and JYNNEOS vaccines have also been administered against MPXV. Globally, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a global health emergency in May 2022 due to increased MPXV cases. Various computational studies have also designed a multi-epitope-based vaccine against the MPXV. In the multi-epitope-based vaccine, different epitopes like B-cell, Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte (CTL), CD8+, and CD4+ epitopes were derived from MPXV proteins. Further, these epitopes were linked with the help of various linkers to design a multi-epitope vaccine against MPXV. In summary, we have provided an overview of the current status of the vaccine against MPXV.
Topics: Humans; Mpox (monkeypox); Animals; Monkeypox virus; Smallpox Vaccine; Vaccine Development; Antibodies, Neutralizing
PubMed: 38801585
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_18 -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024Smallpox was a significant cause of mortality for over three thousand years, amounting to 10% of deaths yearly. Edward Jenner discovered smallpox vaccination in 1796,... (Review)
Review
Smallpox was a significant cause of mortality for over three thousand years, amounting to 10% of deaths yearly. Edward Jenner discovered smallpox vaccination in 1796, which rapidly became a smallpox infection preventive practice throughout the world and eradicated smallpox infection by 1980. After smallpox eradication, monkeypox vaccines have been used primarily in research and in outbreaks in Africa, where the disease is endemic. In the present, the vaccines are being used for people who work with animals or in high-risk areas, as well as for healthcare workers treating patients with monkeypox. Among all orthopoxviruses (OPXV), monkeypox viral (MPXV) infection occurs mainly in cynomolgus monkeys, natural reservoirs, and occasionally causes severe multi-organ infection in humans, who were the incidental hosts. The first case of the present epidemic of MXPV was identified on May 7, 2022, and rapidly increased the number of cases. In this regard, the WHO declared the outbreak, an international public health emergency on July 23, 2022. The first monkeypox vaccine was developed in the 1960s by the US Army and was based on the vaccinia virus, which is also used in smallpox vaccines. In recent years, newer monkeypox vaccines have been developed based on other viruses such as Modified Vaccinia Ankara (MVA). These newer vaccines are safer and can provide longer-lasting immunity with fewer side effects. For the future, there is ongoing research to improve the current vaccines and to develop new ones. One notable advance has been the development of a recombinant vaccine that uses a genetically modified vaccinia virus to express monkeypox antigens. This vaccine has shown promising results in pre-clinical trials and is currently undergoing further testing in clinical trials. Another recent development has been the use of a DNA vaccine, which delivers genetic material encoding monkeypox antigens directly into cells. This type of vaccine has shown effectiveness in animal studies and is also undergoing clinical testing in humans. Overall, these recent advances in monkeypox vaccine development hold promise for protecting individuals against this potentially serious disease.
Topics: Humans; Animals; Smallpox Vaccine; Smallpox; History, 21st Century; History, 20th Century; Mpox (monkeypox); Poxviridae Infections; Poxviridae; Monkeypox virus; Vaccination; Viral Vaccines; Vaccine Development
PubMed: 38801584
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_17 -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024An outbreak of monkeypox (Mpox) was reported in more than 40 countries in early 2022. Accurate diagnosis of Mpox can be challenging, but history, clinical findings, and... (Review)
Review
An outbreak of monkeypox (Mpox) was reported in more than 40 countries in early 2022. Accurate diagnosis of Mpox can be challenging, but history, clinical findings, and laboratory diagnosis can establish the diagnosis. The pre-analytic phase of testing includes collecting, storing, and transporting specimens. It is advised to swab the lesion site with virus transport medium (VTM) containing Dacron or polyester flock swabs from two different sites. Blood, urine, and semen samples may also be used. Timely sampling is necessary to obtain a sufficient amount of virus or antibodies. The analytical phase of infectious disease control involves diagnostic tools to determine the presence of the virus. While polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is the gold standard for detecting Mpox, genome sequencing is for identifying new or modified viruses. As a complement to these methods, isothermal amplification methods have been designed. ELISA assays are also available for the determination of antibodies. Electron microscopy is another effective diagnostic method for tissue identification of the virus. Wastewater fingerprinting provides some of the most effective diagnostic methods for virus identification at the community level. The advantages and disadvantages of these methods are further discussed. Post-analytic phase requires proper interpretation of test results and the preparation of accurate patient reports that include relevant medical history, clinical guidelines, and recommendations for follow-up testing or treatment.
Topics: Humans; Mpox (monkeypox); Monkeypox virus; Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay; Molecular Diagnostic Techniques; Nucleic Acid Amplification Techniques; Polymerase Chain Reaction; Specimen Handling; Clinical Laboratory Techniques
PubMed: 38801583
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_16 -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024The monkeypox virus (MPXV), responsible for human disease, has historically been limited to the African countries, with only a few isolated instances reported elsewhere... (Review)
Review
The monkeypox virus (MPXV), responsible for human disease, has historically been limited to the African countries, with only a few isolated instances reported elsewhere in the world. Nevertheless, in recent years, there have been occurrences of monkeypox in regions where the disease is typically absent, which has garnered global interest. Within a period of less than four months, the incidence of MPXV infections has surged to over 48,000 cases, resulting in a total of 13 deaths. This chapter has addressed the genetics of the pox virus, specifically the human monkeypox virus, and its interaction with the immune systems of host organisms. The present chapter is skillfully constructed, encompassing diagnostic methodologies that span from traditional to developing molecular techniques. Furthermore, the chapter provides a succinct analysis of the therapeutic methods employed, potential future developments, and the various emerging difficulties encountered in illness management.
Topics: Humans; Monkeypox virus; Mpox (monkeypox); Host-Pathogen Interactions; Animals
PubMed: 38801581
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_14 -
Advances in Experimental Medicine and... 2024The family Poxviridae is a large family of viruses with a ubiquitous distribution, subdivided into two subfamilies: Chordopoxvirinae (poxviruses of vertebrates) and... (Review)
Review
The family Poxviridae is a large family of viruses with a ubiquitous distribution, subdivided into two subfamilies: Chordopoxvirinae (poxviruses of vertebrates) and Entomopoxvirinae (poxviruses of insects). Only three species from the first subfamily, Orthopoxvirus (OPV), Molluscipoxvirus and Parapoxvirus, can infect the human being. In the paediatric population, viruses belonging to the first two subfamilies have the greatest importance. Following the eradication of smallpox in 1980, vaccination of the general population was discontinued after careful consideration of the risks and benefits. However, nearly all children and most of the world's population had little to no protection against OPV. The aim of this chapter is to review the current evidence on the aetiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and management of Poxviridae infections in children.
Topics: Humans; Child; Poxviridae Infections; Poxviridae; Child, Preschool; Infant; Animals
PubMed: 38801580
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-57165-7_13