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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal... Oct 2012Using cooperation in chimpanzees as a case study, this article argues that research on animal minds needs to steer a course between 'association-blindness'--the failure... (Review)
Review
Using cooperation in chimpanzees as a case study, this article argues that research on animal minds needs to steer a course between 'association-blindness'--the failure to consider associative learning as a candidate explanation for complex behaviour--and 'simple-mindedness'--the assumption that associative explanations trump more cognitive hypotheses. Association-blindness is challenged by the evidence that associative learning occurs in a wide range of taxa and functional contexts, and is a major force guiding the development of complex human behaviour. Furthermore, contrary to a common view, association-blindness is not entailed by the rejection of behaviourism. Simple-mindedness is founded on Morgan's canon, a methodological principle recommending 'lower' over 'higher' explanations for animal behaviour. Studies in the history and philosophy of science show that Morgan failed to offer an adequate justification for his canon, and subsequent attempts to justify the canon using evolutionary arguments and appeals to simplicity have not been successful. The weaknesses of association-blindness and simple-mindedness imply that there are no short-cuts to finding out about animal minds. To decide between associative and yet more cognitive explanations for animal behaviour, we have to spell them out in sufficient detail to allow differential predictions, and to test these predictions through observation and experiment.
Topics: Animals; Association Learning; Behavior, Animal; Biological Evolution; Brain; Choice Behavior; Cognition; Intelligence; Memory; Pan troglodytes; Theory of Mind
PubMed: 22927568
DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2012.0217 -
Scientific Reports Feb 2022Associative processing is central for human cognition, perception and memory. But while associations often facilitate performance, processing irrelevant associations can...
Associative processing is central for human cognition, perception and memory. But while associations often facilitate performance, processing irrelevant associations can interfere with performance, for example when learning new information. The aim of this study was to explore whether associative interference is influenced by contextual factors such as resources availability. Experiments 1-3 show that associative interference increases under high cognitive load. This result generalized to both long-term and short-term memory associations, and to both explicitly learned as well as incidentally learned associations in the linguistic and pictorial domains. Experiment 4 further revealed that attention to associative information can delay one's perceptual processing when lacking resources. Taken together, when resources diminish associative interference increases, and additionally, processing novel and ambiguous information is hindered. These findings bare relevance to other domains as well (e.g., social, educational), in which increased load or stress may prompt an undesirable bias towards prior, misleading information.
Topics: Adult; Association Learning; Cognition; Female; Humans; Learning; Linguistics; Male; Memory, Short-Term; Visual Perception; Young Adult
PubMed: 35110622
DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-05722-w -
Acta Psychologica Jan 2014This article reviews situations in which stimuli produce an increase or a decrease in nociceptive responses through basic associative processes and provides an... (Review)
Review
This article reviews situations in which stimuli produce an increase or a decrease in nociceptive responses through basic associative processes and provides an associative account of such changes. Specifically, the literature suggests that cues associated with stress can produce conditioned analgesia or conditioned hyperalgesia, depending on the properties of the conditioned stimulus (e.g., contextual cues and audiovisual cues vs. gustatory and olfactory cues, respectively) and the proprieties of the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., appetitive, aversive, or analgesic, respectively). When such cues are associated with reducers of exogenous pain (e.g., opiates), they typically increase sensitivity to pain. Overall, the evidence concerning conditioned stress-induced analgesia, conditioned hyperalagesia, conditioned tolerance to morphine, and conditioned reduction of morphine analgesia suggests that selective associations between stimuli underlie changes in pain sensitivity.
Topics: Analgesia; Analgesics, Opioid; Association Learning; Conditioning, Classical; Cues; Drug Tolerance; Humans; Hyperalgesia; Morphine; Smell; Stress, Psychological
PubMed: 24269884
DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.10.009 -
The Journal of Physiology Oct 2014Acetylcholine is a crucial neuromodulator for attention, learning and memory. Release of acetylcholine in primary sensory cortex enhances processing of sensory stimuli,... (Review)
Review
Acetylcholine is a crucial neuromodulator for attention, learning and memory. Release of acetylcholine in primary sensory cortex enhances processing of sensory stimuli, and many in vitro studies have pinpointed cellular mechanisms that could mediate this effect. In contrast, how cholinergic modulation shapes the function of intact circuits during behaviour is only beginning to emerge. Here we review recent data on the recruitment of identified interneuron types in neocortex by cholinergic signalling, obtained with a combination of genetic targeting of cell types, two-photon imaging and optogenetics. These results suggest that acetylcholine release during basal forebrain stimulation, and during physiological recruitment of the basal forebrain, can strongly and rapidly influence the firing of neocortical interneurons. In contrast to the traditional view of neuromodulation as a relatively slow process, cholinergic signalling can thus rapidly convey time-locked information to neocortex about the behavioural state of the animal and the occurrence of salient sensory stimuli. Importantly, these effects strongly depend on interneuron type, and different interneuron types in turn control distinct aspects of circuit function. One prominent effect of phasic acetylcholine release is disinhibition of pyramidal neurons, which can facilitate sensory processing and associative learning.
Topics: Acetylcholine; Animals; Association Learning; Interneurons; Neocortex
PubMed: 24879871
DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2014.273862 -
Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991) Aug 2011Neuroimaging studies have shown both dorsolateral prefrontal (DLPFC) and inferior parietal cortex (iPARC) activation during probabilistic association learning. Whether... (Clinical Trial)
Clinical Trial Comparative Study
Neuroimaging studies have shown both dorsolateral prefrontal (DLPFC) and inferior parietal cortex (iPARC) activation during probabilistic association learning. Whether these cortical brain regions are necessary for probabilistic association learning is presently unknown. Participants' ability to acquire probabilistic associations was assessed during disruptive 1 Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) of the left DLPFC, left iPARC, and sham using a crossover single-blind design. On subsequent sessions, performance improved relative to baseline except during DLPFC rTMS that disrupted the early acquisition beneficial effect of prior exposure. A second experiment examining rTMS effects on task-naive participants showed that neither DLPFC rTMS nor sham influenced naive acquisition of probabilistic associations. A third experiment examining consecutive administration of the probabilistic association learning test revealed early trial interference from previous exposure to different probability schedules. These experiments, showing disrupted acquisition of probabilistic associations by rTMS only during subsequent sessions with an intervening night's sleep, suggest that the DLPFC may facilitate early access to learned strategies or prior task-related memories via consolidation. Although neuroimaging studies implicate DLPFC and iPARC in probabilistic association learning, the present findings suggest that early acquisition of the probabilistic cue-outcome associations in task-naive participants is not dependent on either region.
Topics: Adolescent; Adult; Association Learning; Cross-Over Studies; Female; Humans; Longitudinal Studies; Male; Parietal Lobe; Prefrontal Cortex; Probability Learning; Prospective Studies; Single-Blind Method; Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation; Young Adult
PubMed: 21216842
DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhq255 -
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews Nov 2013The NIH-funded CNTRICS initiative has coordinated efforts to promote the vertical translation of novel procognitive molecules from testing in mice, rats and non-human... (Review)
Review
The NIH-funded CNTRICS initiative has coordinated efforts to promote the vertical translation of novel procognitive molecules from testing in mice, rats and non-human primates, to clinical efficacy in patients with schizophrenia. CNTRICS highlighted improving construct validation of tasks across species to increase the likelihood that the translation of a candidate molecule to humans will be successful. Other aspects of cross-species behaviors remain important however. This review describes cognitive tasks utilized across species, providing examples of differences and similarities of innate behavior between species, as well as convergent construct and predictive validity. Tests of attention, olfactory discrimination, reversal learning, and paired associate learning are discussed. Moreover, information on the practical implication of species differences in drug development research is also provided. The issues covered here will aid in task development and utilization across species as well as reinforcing the positive role preclinical research can have in developing procognitive treatments for psychiatric disorders.
Topics: Animals; Association Learning; Cognition Disorders; Disease Models, Animal; Humans; Reproducibility of Results; Schizophrenia; Species Specificity; Translational Research, Biomedical
PubMed: 23064177
DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.10.002 -
Neuron Sep 2005Orbitofrontal cortex is characterized by its unique pattern of connections with subcortical areas, such as basolateral amygdala. Here we distinguish between the critical... (Review)
Review
Orbitofrontal cortex is characterized by its unique pattern of connections with subcortical areas, such as basolateral amygdala. Here we distinguish between the critical role of these areas in associative learning and the pivotal contribution of OFC to the manipulation of this information to control behavior. This contribution reflects the ability of OFC to signal the desirability of expected outcomes, which requires the integration of associative information with information concerning internal states and goals in representational memory.
Topics: Amygdala; Animals; Association Learning; Behavior; Humans; Orbit; Prefrontal Cortex
PubMed: 16129393
DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2005.07.018 -
Hormones and Behavior May 2024Central to the navigation of an ever-changing environment is the ability to form positive associations with places and conspecifics. The functions of location and social... (Review)
Review
Central to the navigation of an ever-changing environment is the ability to form positive associations with places and conspecifics. The functions of location and social conditioned preferences are often studied independently, limiting our understanding of their interplay. Furthermore, a de-emphasis on natural functions of conditioned preferences has led to neurobiological interpretations separated from ecological context. By adopting a naturalistic and ethological perspective, we uncover complexities underlying the expression of conditioned preferences. Development of conditioned preferences is a combination of motivation, reward, associative learning, and context, including for social and spatial environments. Both social- and location-dependent reward-responsive behaviors and their conditioning rely on internal state-gating mechanisms that include neuroendocrine and hormone systems such as opioids, dopamine, testosterone, estradiol, and oxytocin. Such reinforced behavior emerges from mechanisms integrating past experience and current social and environmental conditions. Moreover, social context, environmental stimuli, and internal state gate and modulate motivation and learning via associative reward, shaping the conditioning process. We highlight research incorporating these concepts, focusing on the integration of social neuroendocrine mechanisms and behavioral conditioning. We explore three paradigms: 1) conditioned place preference, 2) conditioned social preference, and 3) social conditioned place preference. We highlight nonclassical species to emphasize the naturalistic applications of these conditioned preferences. To fully appreciate the complex integration of spatial and social information, future research must identify neural networks where endocrine systems exert influence on such behaviors. Such research promises to provide valuable insights into conditioned preferences within a broader naturalistic context.
Topics: Animals; Reward; Motivation; Humans; Endocrine System; Social Behavior; Conditioning, Psychological; Association Learning
PubMed: 38492501
DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2024.105529 -
Cognitive Science 2013Reinforcement learning (RL) models of decision-making cannot account for human decisions in the absence of prior reward or punishment. We propose a mechanism for...
Reinforcement learning (RL) models of decision-making cannot account for human decisions in the absence of prior reward or punishment. We propose a mechanism for choosing among available options based on goal-option association strengths, where association strengths between objects represent previously experienced object proximity. The proposed mechanism, Goal-Proximity Decision-making (GPD), is implemented within the ACT-R cognitive framework. GPD is found to be more efficient than RL in three maze-navigation simulations. GPD advantages over RL seem to grow as task difficulty is increased. An experiment is presented where participants are asked to make choices in the absence of prior reward. GPD captures human performance in this experiment better than RL.
Topics: Adult; Association Learning; Computer Simulation; Decision Making; Goals; Humans; Models, Psychological; Punishment; Reinforcement, Psychology
PubMed: 23551486
DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12034 -
Alcohol (Fayetteville, N.Y.) Dec 2019The ability of environmental cues to trigger alcohol-seeking behaviors is believed to facilitate problematic alcohol use. We previously showed that the development of...
The ability of environmental cues to trigger alcohol-seeking behaviors is believed to facilitate problematic alcohol use. We previously showed that the development of this cue-evoked alcohol approach reflects cue-alcohol learning and memory in the adult male rat; however, we do not know whether the same is true for similarly aged female rats. Consequently, adult Long-Evans female rats were allowed to drink unsweetened alcohol in the home cage (Monday, Wednesday, Friday; 24-h two-bottle choice; 5 weeks) and were subsequently split into two experimental groups: Paired and Unpaired. Groups were matched for ingested doses and alcohol bottle preference across the pre-conditioning home cage period. Both groups were trained in conditioning chambers using a Pavlovian procedure. For the Paired group, the chamber houselight was illuminated to signal access to an alcohol sipper. Houselight onset was yoked for the Unpaired group, but access to the alcohol sipper was scheduled to occur only during the intervening periods (in the absence of light). We found that in the Paired, but not Unpaired group, an alcohol approach reaction was conditioned to houselight illumination, and the level of cue-conditioned reactivity predicted drinking behavior within trials. Groups experienced equivalently low but non-negligible blood alcohol concentrations over the course of conditioning sessions. We conclude that cue-triggered alcohol-seeking behavior in adult female rats reflects associative learning about the relationship between alcohol availability and houselight illumination.
Topics: Alcohol Drinking; Animals; Association Learning; Conditioning, Classical; Cues; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Ethanol; Female; Rats; Rats, Long-Evans
PubMed: 31002878
DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2019.03.003