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Journal of Vision Jul 2011It is widely believed that color can be decomposed into a small number of component colors. Particularly, each hue can be described as a combination of a restricted set... (Comparative Study)
Comparative Study
It is widely believed that color can be decomposed into a small number of component colors. Particularly, each hue can be described as a combination of a restricted set of component hues. Methods, such as color naming and hue scaling, aim at describing color in terms of the relative amount of the component hues. However, there is no consensus on the nomenclature of component hues. Moreover, the very notion of hue (not to mention component hue) is usually defined verbally rather than perceptually. In this paper, we make an attempt to operationalize such a fundamental attribute of color as hue without the use of verbal terms. Specifically, we put forth a new method--partial hue-matching--that is based on judgments of whether two colors have some hue in common. It allows a set of component hues to be established objectively, without resorting to verbal definitions. Specifically, the largest sets of color stimuli, all of which partially match each other (referred to as chromaticity classes), can be derived from the observer's partial hue-matches. A chromaticity class proves to consist of all color stimuli that contain a particular component hue. Thus, the chromaticity classes fully define the set of component hues. Using samples of Munsell papers, a few experiments on partial hue-matching were carried out with twelve inexperienced normal trichromatic observers. The results reinforce the classical notion of four component hues (yellow, blue, red, and green). Black and white (but not gray) were also found to be component colors.
Topics: Color; Color Perception; Color Vision; Humans; Photic Stimulation
PubMed: 21742961
DOI: 10.1167/11.8.6 -
Chinese Clinical Oncology Mar 2015Follicular lymphoma (FL) is the most common indolent non-hodgkin lymphoma. Most patients with FL are diagnosed with advanced disease and are considered incurable. The... (Review)
Review
Follicular lymphoma (FL) is the most common indolent non-hodgkin lymphoma. Most patients with FL are diagnosed with advanced disease and are considered incurable. The classical prognostic index in FL is the FL international prognostic index (FLIPI). The management of FL is mainly determined by histologic grading, clinical stage, and tumor burden. For patients with stage I and II disease, an involved-site radiation therapy (ISRT) is recommended and may be potentially curative approach with 60% to 80% of 10-year overall survival (OS) rates, while patients with stage III and IV should be treated with systemic therapy. The watchful waiting is still an option for patients without symptoms or/and low tumor burden. Induction of immuno-chemotherapy combined with consolidation of rituximab maintenance (MR) is standard care for patients with symptomatic disease or with high tumor burden when treatment indicated. The major indication for systemic therapy is including candidate for clinical trials, threatened end organ function, cytopenia secondary to lymphoma bulky disease and steady progress etc. at present time. Routine baseline and regular hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and hepatitis B core antibody (HBcAb) testing is strongly recommended for all patients before the initiation of immuno-chemotherapy in order to minimize the risk of hepatitis B virus (HBV) reactivation which has been observed approximately 20% to 50% of patients with positive HBsAg and 3% to 45% of patients with positive HBcAb. Prophylactic antiviral treatment in patients who are HBsAg-positive or HBcAb-positive is indicated before immuno-chemotherapy. The management for elderly patients should be carefully selected to avoid overtreatment and severe toxicities. Individualized dose adjustment for chemotherapy and an adequate supportive treatment are essential for this special population. Novel agents such as lenalidomide, ibrutinib and idelalisib are promising. In conclusion, individualized management of FL remains challenging and role of new targeted agents need to be defined.
Topics: Age Factors; Antineoplastic Agents; Antiviral Agents; Hepatitis B; Hepatitis B virus; Humans; Lymphoma, Follicular; Molecular Targeted Therapy; Neoplasm Grading; Neoplasm Staging; Patient Selection; Predictive Value of Tests; Radiotherapy; Risk Factors; Stem Cell Transplantation; Treatment Outcome; Virus Activation; Watchful Waiting
PubMed: 25841714
DOI: 10.3978/j.issn.2304-3865.2015.01.01 -
AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology Mar 2017Current clinical guidelines are consistent in supporting annual mammography for women after treatment of primary breast cancer. Surveillance imaging beyond standard... (Review)
Review
OBJECTIVE
Current clinical guidelines are consistent in supporting annual mammography for women after treatment of primary breast cancer. Surveillance imaging beyond standard digital mammography, including digital breast tomosynthesis (DBT), breast ultrasound, and MRI, may improve outcomes. This article reviews the evidence on the performance and effectiveness of breast imaging modalities available for surveillance after treatment of sporadic unilateral primary breast cancer and identifies additional factors to be considered when selecting an imaging surveillance regimen.
CONCLUSION
Evidence review supports the use of mammography for surveillance after primary breast cancer treatment. Variability exists in guideline recommendations for surveillance initiation, interval, and cessation. DBT offers the most promise as a potential modality to replace standard digital mammography as a front-line surveillance test; a single published study to date has shown a significant decrease in recall rates compared with standard digital mammography alone. Most guidelines do not support the use of whole-breast ultrasound in breast cancer surveillance, and further studies are needed to define the characteristics of women who may benefit from MRI surveillance. The emerging evidence about surveillance imaging outcomes suggests that additional factors, including patient and imaging characteristics, tumor biology and gene expression profile, and choice of treatment, warrant consideration in selecting personalized posttreatment imaging surveillance regimens.
Topics: Breast Neoplasms; Evidence-Based Medicine; Female; Humans; Magnetic Resonance Imaging; Mammography; Prognosis; Reproducibility of Results; Sensitivity and Specificity; Treatment Outcome; Watchful Waiting
PubMed: 28075622
DOI: 10.2214/AJR.16.16300 -
World Journal of Gastroenterology Oct 2014Although the prevalence of gastric cancer (GC) progressively decreased during the last decades, due to improved dietary habit, introduction of food refrigeration and... (Review)
Review
Although the prevalence of gastric cancer (GC) progressively decreased during the last decades, due to improved dietary habit, introduction of food refrigeration and recovered socio-economic level, it still accounts for 10% of the total cancer-related deaths. The best strategy to reduce the mortality for GC is to schedule appropriate screening and surveillance programs, that rises many relevant concerns taking into account its worldwide variability, natural history, diagnostic tools, therapeutic strategies, and cost-effectiveness. Intestinal-type, the most frequent GC histotype, develops through a multistep process triggered by Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) and progressing from gastritis to atrophy, intestinal metaplasia (IM), and dysplasia. However, the majority of patients infected with H. pylori and carrying premalignant lesions do not develop GC. Therefore, it remains unclear who should be screened, when the screening should be started and how the screening should be performed. It seems reasonable that screening programs should target the general population in eastern countries, at high prevalence of GC and the high-risk subjects in western countries, at low prevalence of GC. As far as concern surveillance, currently, we are lacking of standardized international recommendations and many features have to be defined regarding the optimal diagnostic approach, the patients at higher risk, the best timing and the cost-effectiveness. Anyway, patients with corpus atrophic gastritis, extensive incomplete IM and dysplasia should enter a surveillance program. At present, screening and surveillance programs need further studies to draw worldwide reliable recommendations and evaluate the impact on mortality for GC.
Topics: Decision Support Techniques; Early Detection of Cancer; Humans; Precancerous Conditions; Predictive Value of Tests; Prognosis; Risk Assessment; Risk Factors; Stomach Neoplasms; Time Factors; Watchful Waiting
PubMed: 25320506
DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i38.13681 -
Thyroid : Official Journal of the... Nov 2022Active surveillance (AS) is an alternative to thyroidectomy for the management of low-risk papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PTMC). However, prospective AS data...
Progression of Low-Risk Papillary Thyroid Microcarcinoma During Active Surveillance: Interim Analysis of a Multicenter Prospective Cohort Study of Active Surveillance on Papillary Thyroid Microcarcinoma in Korea.
Active surveillance (AS) is an alternative to thyroidectomy for the management of low-risk papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PTMC). However, prospective AS data collected from diverse populations are needed. This multicenter prospective cohort study enrolled patients from three referral hospitals in Korea. The participants were self-assigned into two groups, AS or immediate surgery. All patients underwent neck ultrasound every 6-12 months to monitor for disease progression. Progression under AS was evaluated by a criterion of tumor size increment by 3 mm in one dimension (3 mm), 2 mm in two dimensions (2 × 2 mm), new extrathyroidal extension (ETE), or new lymph node metastasis (LNM), and a composite outcome was defined using all four criteria. A total of 1177 eligible patients with PTMC (919 female, 78.1%) with a median age of 48 years (range 19-87) were enrolled; 755 (64.1%) patients chose AS and 422 (35.9%) underwent surgery. Among 755 patients under AS, 706 (female 537, 76.1%) underwent at least two ultrasound examinations and were analyzed. Over a follow-up period of 41.4 months (standard deviation, 16.0), 163 AS patients (23.1%) underwent surgery. Progression defined by the composite outcome was observed in 9.6% (68/706) of patients, and the 2- and 5-year progression estimates were 5.3% and 14.2%, respectively. The observed progression rates were 5.8% (41/706) and 5.4% (38/706) as defined by tumor size enlargement by 3 mm and 2 × 2 mm, respectively, and 1.3% (9/706) and 0.4% (3/706) for new LNM and ETE, respectively. No distant metastases developed during AS. In multivariate logistic regression analysis examining variables associated with progression under AS, age at diagnosis <30 years (odds ratio [OR], 2.86; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.10 - 7.45), male sex (OR, 2.48; 95% CI, 1.47 - 4.20), and tumor size ≥6 mm (OR, 1.89; 95% CI, 1.09 - 3.27) were independently significant. The progression of low-risk PTMC during AS in the Korean population was low, but slightly higher than previously reported in other populations. Risk factors for disease progression under AS include younger age, male sex, and larger tumor size. Clinicaltrials.gov NCT02938702.
Topics: Humans; Male; Female; Young Adult; Adult; Middle Aged; Aged; Aged, 80 and over; Prospective Studies; Watchful Waiting; Carcinoma, Papillary; Thyroid Neoplasms; Thyroidectomy; Lymphatic Metastasis; Risk Factors; Disease Progression; Retrospective Studies
PubMed: 36205563
DOI: 10.1089/thy.2021.0614 -
Frontiers in Endocrinology 2021Neuroimaging is a key tool in the diagnostic process of various clinical conditions, especially in pediatric endocrinology. Thanks to continuous and remarkable... (Review)
Review
Neuroimaging is a key tool in the diagnostic process of various clinical conditions, especially in pediatric endocrinology. Thanks to continuous and remarkable technological developments, magnetic resonance imaging can precisely characterize numerous structural brain anomalies, including the pituitary gland and hypothalamus. Sometimes the use of radiological exams might become excessive and even disproportionate to the patients' medical needs, especially regarding the incidental findings, the so-called "incidentalomas". This unclarity is due to the absence of well-defined pediatric guidelines for managing and following these radiological findings. We review and summarize some indications on how to, and even if to, monitor these anomalies over time to avoid unnecessary, expensive, and time-consuming investigations and to encourage a more appropriate follow-up of brain MRI anomalies in the pediatric population with endocrinological conditions.
Topics: Aftercare; Brain; Child; Child, Preschool; Growth Disorders; Human Growth Hormone; Humans; Incidental Findings; Magnetic Resonance Imaging; Neuroimaging; Practice Guidelines as Topic; Puberty, Precocious; Watchful Waiting
PubMed: 35095759
DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.780763 -
BMC Urology Sep 2023Treatment decisions for localized prostate cancer must balance patient preferences, oncologic risk, and preservation of sexual, urinary and bowel function. While Active... (Review)
Review
BACKGROUND
Treatment decisions for localized prostate cancer must balance patient preferences, oncologic risk, and preservation of sexual, urinary and bowel function. While Active Surveillance (AS) is the recommended option for men with Grade Group 1 (Gleason Score 3 + 3 = 6) prostate cancer without other intermediate-risk features, men with Grade Group 2 (Gleason Score 3 + 4 = 7) are typically recommended active treatment. For select patients, AS can be a possible initial management strategy for men with Grade Group 2. Herein, we review current urology guidelines and the urologic literature regarding recommendations and evidence for AS for this patient group.
MAIN BODY
AS benefits men with prostate cancer by maintaining their current quality of life and avoiding treatment side effects. AS protocols with close follow up always allow for an option to change course and pursue curative treatment. All the major guideline organizations now include Grade Group 2 disease with slightly differing definitions of eligibility based on risk using prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level, Gleason score, clinical stage, and other factors. Selected men with Grade Group 2 on AS have similar rates of deferred treatment and metastasis to men with Grade Group 1 on AS. There is a growing body of evidence from randomized controlled trials, large observational (prospective and retrospective) cohorts that confirm the oncologic safety of AS for these men. While some men will inevitably conclude AS at some point due to clinical reclassification with biopsy or imaging, some men may be able to stay on AS until transition to watchful waiting (WW). Magnetic resonance imaging is an important tool to confirm AS eligibility, to monitor progression and guide prostate biopsy.
CONCLUSION
AS is a viable initial management option for well-informed and select men with Grade Group 2 prostate cancer, low volume of pattern 4, and no other adverse clinicopathologic findings following a well-defined monitoring protocol. In the modern era of AS, urologists have tools at their disposal to better stage patients at initial diagnosis, risk stratify patients, and gain information on the biologic potential of a patient's prostate cancer.
Topics: Male; Humans; Watchful Waiting; Neoplasm Grading; Quality of Life; Prospective Studies; Retrospective Studies; Prostatic Neoplasms; Prostate-Specific Antigen
PubMed: 37777716
DOI: 10.1186/s12894-023-01314-6 -
Oncology (Williston Park, N.Y.) May 2017Prostate cancer is the most common malignancy affecting men. There has been a nearly 70% increase in new prostate cancer cases, mostly classified as low risk, that have... (Review)
Review
Prostate cancer is the most common malignancy affecting men. There has been a nearly 70% increase in new prostate cancer cases, mostly classified as low risk, that have been diagnosed in early stages as a consequence of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) screening. Data regarding the natural history of this disease confirm the clinical insignificance of low-grade prostate cancer, which is associated with scant or no metastatic dissemination. Active surveillance is a conservative management approach, conducted for those patients with "low-risk" or "favorable-risk" disease, which avoids long-term adverse effects on the patient's quality of life. It is characterized by a routine protocol of close monitoring with digital rectal examination, periodic biopsy, and serial PSA testing. As defined by D'Amico, active surveillance is broadly appropriate for men with a Gleason score of 6 or less and a PSA level of less than 10 ng/mL. Typically, Gleason pattern 3 disease lacks the common genetic aberrancies of a true cancer. An essential element of the active surveillance approach is early recognition of higher-risk disease, which is diagnosed by systematic biopsy in 30% of patients who initiate active surveillance with low-risk disease. Also, a small group of patients have molecular alterations that can cause progression to more aggressive disease; these men can be switched to immediate treatment if such progression is detected. Oncologic outcomes for active surveillance cohorts have shown the long-term safety of this approach, with a cancer-specific mortality rate of 3% at 10 to 15 years. In this review of active surveillance for favorable-risk prostate cancer, we will discuss the rationality of this approach, the biological evidence for employing active surveillance in Gleason pattern 3 and 4 prostate cancer, patient selection for active surveillance, clinical trial data on active surveillance, and the role of prostate cancer biomarkers and imaging studies (MRI) for clinical decision making in patients with low-risk disease.
Topics: Biomarkers, Tumor; Digital Rectal Examination; Disease Progression; Humans; Male; Middle Aged; Neoplasm Staging; Population Surveillance; Prostate-Specific Antigen; Prostatic Neoplasms; Watchful Waiting
PubMed: 28512731
DOI: No ID Found -
The Cochrane Database of Systematic... Jul 2015Recurrent urinary tract infections (RUTI) are common in women who are pregnant and may cause serious adverse pregnancy outcomes for both mother and child including... (Review)
Review
BACKGROUND
Recurrent urinary tract infections (RUTI) are common in women who are pregnant and may cause serious adverse pregnancy outcomes for both mother and child including preterm birth and small-for-gestational-age babies. Interventions used to prevent RUTI in women who are pregnant can be pharmacological (antibiotics) or non-pharmacological (cranberry products, acupuncture, probiotics and behavioural modifications). So far little is known about the best way to prevent RUTI in pregnant women.
OBJECTIVES
To assess the effects of interventions for preventing RUTI in pregnant women.The primary maternal outcomes were RUTI before birth (variously defined) and preterm birth (before 37 weeks). The primary infant outcomes were small-for-gestational age and total mortality.
SEARCH METHODS
We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group's Trials Register (20 May 2015) and reference lists of retrieved articles.
SELECTION CRITERIA
Published, unpublished and ongoing randomised controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-RCTs, clustered-randomised trials and abstracts of any intervention (pharmacological and non-pharmacological) for preventing RUTI during pregnancy (compared with another intervention, placebo or with usual care).
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Two review authors independently assessed trials for inclusion and risk of bias, extracted data and checked them for accuracy.
MAIN RESULTS
The review included one trial involving 200 women and was at moderate to high risk of bias.The trial compared a daily dose of nitrofurantoin and close surveillance (regular clinic visit, urine cultures and antibiotics when a positive culture was found) with close surveillance only. No significant differences were found for the primary outcomes: recurrent pyelonephritis (risk ratio (RR) 0.89, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.31 to 2.53; one study, 167 women), RUTI before birth (RR 0.30, 95% CI 0.06 to 1.38; one study, 167 women), and preterm birth (before 37 weeks) (RR 1.18, 95% CI 0.42 to 3.35; one study, 147 women). The overall quality of evidence for these outcomes as assessed using GRADE was very low. There were no significant differences between the two comparison groups for any of the following secondary outcomes, birthweight less than 2500 (g) (RR 2.03, 95% CI 0.53 to 7.80; one study, 147 infants), birthweight (mean difference (MD) -113.00, 95% CI -327.20 to 101.20; one study, 147 infants), five-minute Apgar score less than seven (RR 2.03, 95% CI 0.19 to 21.87; one study, 147 infants) and miscarriages (RR 3.11, 95% CI 0.33 to 29.29; one study, 167 women). The evidence for these secondary outcomes was also of very low quality. The incidence of asymptomatic bacteriuria (ASB) (at least 10(3) colonies per mL) (secondary outcome), only reported in women with a clinic attendance rate of more than 90% (RR 0.55, 95% CI 0.34 to 0.89; one study, 102 women), was significantly reduced in women who received nitrofurantoin and close surveillance. Data on total mortality and small-for-gestational-age babies were not reported.
AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS
A daily dose of nitrofurantoin and close surveillance has not been shown to prevent RUTI compared with close surveillance alone. A significant reduction of ASB was found in women with a high clinic attendance rate and who received nitrofurantoin and close surveillance. There was limited reporting of both primary and secondary outcomes for both women and infants. No conclusions can be drawn regarding the optimal intervention to prevent RUTI in women who are pregnant. Randomised controlled trials comparing different pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions are necessary to investigate potentially effective interventions to prevent RUTI in women who are pregnant.
Topics: Anti-Infective Agents, Urinary; Bacteriuria; Female; Humans; Nitrofurantoin; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Complications, Infectious; Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic; Recurrence; Secondary Prevention; Urinary Tract Infections; Watchful Waiting
PubMed: 26221993
DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009279.pub3 -
Philosophical Transactions. Series A,... Jul 2022One of the challenges of defining emergence is that one observer's prior knowledge may cause a phenomenon to present itself as emergent that to another observer appears...
One of the challenges of defining emergence is that one observer's prior knowledge may cause a phenomenon to present itself as emergent that to another observer appears reducible. By formalizing the act of observing as mutual perturbations between dynamical systems, we demonstrate that the emergence of algorithmic information does depend on the observer's formal knowledge, while being robust vis-a-vis other subjective factors, particularly: the choice of programming language and method of measurement; errors or distortions during the observation; and the informational cost of processing. This is called observer-dependent emergence (ODE). In addition, we demonstrate that the unbounded and rapid increase of emergent algorithmic information implies asymptotically observer-independent emergence (AOIE). Unlike ODE, AOIE is a type of emergence for which emergent phenomena will be considered emergent no matter what formal theory an observer might bring to bear. We demonstrate the existence of an evolutionary model that displays the diachronic variant of AOIE and a network model that displays the holistic variant of AOIE. Our results show that, restricted to the context of finite discrete deterministic dynamical systems, computable systems and irreducible information content measures, AOIE is the strongest form of emergence that formal theories can attain. This article is part of the theme issue 'Emergent phenomena in complex physical and socio-technical systems: from cells to societies'.
Topics: Biological Evolution; Knowledge
PubMed: 35599568
DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2020.0429