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Cognitive Behaviour Therapy May 2019Fluctuations in ovarian hormones over the menstrual cycle contribute to cigarette reward, however less is known about menstrual cycle influences on emotional distress...
Fluctuations in ovarian hormones over the menstrual cycle contribute to cigarette reward, however less is known about menstrual cycle influences on emotional distress in female smokers. We examined between-group differences in emotional distress (negative affectivity, emotion dysregulation, distress intolerance) and hypothetical cigarette purchasing (i.e. tobacco demand) among female smokers at three different menstrual stages. Women (n = 32) were non-treatment seeking daily smokers not on hormonal contraceptive, and were currently in their follicular (estradiol-dominant; n = 10), early-mid luteal (progesterone-dominant; n = 15), and late-luteal phase (decreasing progesterone/estradiol; n = 7). Effect sizes are reported given the small sample. Women in the late-luteal phase, relative to the follicular and early-mid luteal phases, reported higher levels of negative affectivity (d = 0.69), emotion dysregulation (d = 1.03), and distress intolerance (d = -0.86). Compared to the early-mid luteal and late-luteal phases, women in the follicular phase reported the highest hypothetical cigarette consumption when cigarettes were free (d = 0.71) and made the largest maximum expenditures on cigarettes (d = 0.74). Findings offer preliminary evidence that the late-luteal phase is characterized by emotional distress, and the follicular phase is associated with elevated tobacco demand, which if replicated could implicate ovarian hormones in emotion-focused smoking.
Topics: Craving; Emotional Regulation; Female; Follicular Phase; Humans; Luteal Phase; Menstrual Cycle; Psychological Distress; Smokers
PubMed: 30064348
DOI: 10.1080/16506073.2018.1494208 -
Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology May 2018Previous studies have reported that hyperthyroid and hypothyroid women experience menstrual irregularities more often compared with euthyroid women, but reasons for this...
BACKGROUND
Previous studies have reported that hyperthyroid and hypothyroid women experience menstrual irregularities more often compared with euthyroid women, but reasons for this are not well-understood and studies on thyroid hormones among euthyroid women are lacking. In a prospective cohort study of euthyroid women, this study characterised the relationship between thyroid hormone concentrations and prospectively collected menstrual function outcomes.
METHODS
Between 2004-2014, 86 euthyroid premenopausal women not lactating or taking hormonal medications participated in a study measuring menstrual function. Serum thyroid hormones were measured before the menstrual function study began. Women then collected first morning urine voids and completed daily bleeding diaries every day for three cycles. Urinary oestrogen and progesterone metabolites (estrone 3-glucuronide (E 3G) and pregnanediol 3-glucuronide (Pd3G)) and follicle-stimulating hormone were measured and adjusted for creatinine (Cr).
RESULTS
Total thyroxine (T ) concentrations were positively associated with Pd3G and E 3G. Women with higher (vs lower) T had greater luteal phase maximum Pd3G (Pd3G = 11.7 μg/mg Cr for women with high T vs Pd3G = 9.5 and 8.1 μg/mg Cr for women with medium and low T , respectively) and greater follicular phase maximum E 3G (E 3G = 41.7 ng/mg Cr for women with high T vs E 3G = 34.3 and 33.7 ng/mg Cr for women with medium and low T , respectively).
CONCLUSIONS
Circulating thyroid hormone concentrations were associated with subtle differences in menstrual cycle function outcomes, particularly sex steroid hormone levels in healthy women. Results contribute to the understanding of the relationship between thyroid function and the menstrual cycle, and may have implications for fertility and chronic disease.
Topics: Adult; Female; Humans; Longitudinal Studies; Menstrual Cycle; Middle Aged; Premenopause; Prospective Studies; Thyroid Hormones; Women's Health; Young Adult
PubMed: 29517803
DOI: 10.1111/ppe.12462 -
International Journal of Environmental... Dec 2022This study investigated the relationship between changes in foot characteristics and sex differences during the menstrual cycle in healthy male and female university...
This study investigated the relationship between changes in foot characteristics and sex differences during the menstrual cycle in healthy male and female university students. We examined 10 female subjects and 14 male subjects. The menstrual cycle was divided into the three phases: the early follicular phase, ovulatory phase, and luteal phase via basal body temperature, an ovulation kit, and salivary estradiol and progesterone concentration measurements. Foot characteristics required for the calculation of the arch height index (AHI) were measured using a three-dimensional foot scanner under conditions of 10% and 50% weight-bearing loads. Arch height at 50% of foot length and truncated foot length were measured, and AHI was calculated by dividing arch height by truncated foot length. Arch height flexibility (AHF) was defined as the change in arch height from 10% weight-bearing load to 50% weight-bearing load. AHI was significantly lower in females than in males in the early follicular and ovulatory phases but did not differ significantly between males and females in each phase. AHF did not differ significantly between males and females in each phase. AHI and AHF showed no periodic fluctuation, suggesting that sex differences in AHF may be absent.
Topics: Female; Male; Humans; Sex Characteristics; Menstrual Cycle; Progesterone; Foot; Luteal Phase
PubMed: 36612829
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20010509 -
Journal of Biological Rhythms Feb 2023The human circadian system responds to light as low as 30 photopic lux. Furthermore, recent evidence shows that there are huge individual differences in light... (Review)
Review
The human circadian system responds to light as low as 30 photopic lux. Furthermore, recent evidence shows that there are huge individual differences in light sensitivity, which may help to explain why some people are more susceptible to sleep and circadian disruption than others. The biological mechanisms underlying the differences in light sensitivity remain largely unknown. A key variable of interest in understanding these individual differences in light sensitivity is biological sex. It is possible that in humans, males and females differ in their sensitivity to light, but the evidence is inconclusive. This is in part due to the historic exclusion of women in biomedical research. Hormonal fluctuations across the menstrual cycle in women has often been cited as a confound by researchers. Attitudes, however, are changing with funding and publication agencies advocating for more inclusive research frameworks and mandating that women and minorities participate in scientific research studies. In this article, we distill the existing knowledge regarding the relationship between light and the menstrual cycle. There is some evidence of a relationship between light and the menstrual cycle, but the nature of this relationship seems dependent on the timing of the light source (sunlight, moonlight, and electric light at night). Light sensitivity may be influenced by biological sex and menstrual phase but there might not be any effect at all. To better understand the relationship between light, the circadian system, and the menstrual cycle, future research needs to be designed thoughtfully, conducted rigorously, and reported transparently.
Topics: Male; Humans; Female; Photophobia; Circadian Rhythm; Melatonin; Menstrual Cycle; Sleep
PubMed: 36367137
DOI: 10.1177/07487304221126785 -
Age-Dependent and Seasonal Changes in Menstrual Cycle Length and Body Temperature Based on Big Data.Obstetrics and Gynecology Oct 2020To evaluate the effects of age and season on menstrual cycle length and basal body temperature (BBT). We also examined the effects of climate on cycle length and BBT,...
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate the effects of age and season on menstrual cycle length and basal body temperature (BBT). We also examined the effects of climate on cycle length and BBT, taking into account Japanese geographic and social characteristics.
METHODS
In this retrospective cohort study, we analyzed data from 6 million menstrual cycles entered into a smartphone application from 310,000 females from 2016 to 2017. Only those who entered more than 10 cycles in 2 years were included. Generalized estimation equations were used to adjust for confounding factors and for within-person correlations of multiple records. Multiple regression analysis was conducted, with age, external average temperature, precipitation amount, and sunshine hours as confounding factors.
RESULTS
The mean menstrual cycle length increased from age 15-23 years, subsequently decreased up to age 45 years, and then increased again. Average follicular phase body temperature showed no significant age-dependent changes, but luteal phase body temperature gradually increased up to 29 years and then stabilized and started to decrease after age 42 years. A significant association between external temperature and body temperature (follicular and luteal phase) was observed, though menstrual cycle length did not show such an association.
CONCLUSION
These results, derived from data self-entered into a smartphone application, revealed underrecognized age-dependent and seasonal changes in menstrual cycle length and BBT, which will contribute to a better understanding of female reproductive health in the modern world.
Topics: Adolescent; Adult; Age Factors; Big Data; Body Temperature; Data Collection; Female; Humans; Japan; Luteal Phase; Menstrual Cycle; Reproductive Health; Retrospective Studies; Seasons; Smartphone; Time Factors; Women's Health
PubMed: 32925608
DOI: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000003910 -
European Journal of Sport Science May 2022This review explores the effects of oestrogen and progesterone fluctuations across the menstrual cycle on fluid and electrolyte balance. The review aims to provide... (Review)
Review
This review explores the effects of oestrogen and progesterone fluctuations across the menstrual cycle on fluid and electrolyte balance. The review aims to provide information on this topic for the exercising female but also for researchers working in this field. Beginning with a basic introduction to fluid and electrolyte balance, the review goes on to describe how oestrogen and progesterone have independent and integrated roles to play in the regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance. Despite evidence that oestrogen can influence the osmotic threshold for arginine vasopressin release, and that progesterone can influence aldosterone production, these actions do not appear to influence fluid retention, plasma volume changes at rest and during exercise, or electrolyte losses. However, the large inter-individual variations in hormonal fluctuations throughout the menstrual cycle may mean that specific individuals with high fluctuations could experience disturbances in their fluid and electrolyte balance. During phases of oestrogen dominance (e.g. late-follicular phase) heat dissipation is promoted, while progesterone dominance (e.g. mid-luteal phase) promotes heat conservation with overall higher basal body temperature. However, these responses do not consistently lead to any change in observed sweat rates, heat-stress, or dehydration during exercise. Finally, the literature does not support any difference in fluid retention during post-exercise rehydration periods conducted at different menstrual cycle phases. Although these mean responses largely reveal no effects on fluid and electrolyte balance, further research is required particularly in those individuals who experience high hormonal fluctuations, and greater exploration of oestrogen to progesterone interactions is warranted.
Topics: Estrogens; Female; Humans; Luteal Phase; Menstrual Cycle; Progesterone; Water-Electrolyte Balance
PubMed: 34121620
DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1939428 -
Archives of Women's Mental Health Feb 2017This article describes periodic monthly psychoses that develop during the early months of pregnancy. It is probable that these are a variety of menstrual psychosis.
This article describes periodic monthly psychoses that develop during the early months of pregnancy. It is probable that these are a variety of menstrual psychosis.
Topics: Adult; Female; Humans; Hysteria; Menstrual Cycle; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Trimester, First; Psychotic Disorders
PubMed: 27722950
DOI: 10.1007/s00737-016-0678-5 -
Behavioural Brain Research Jan 2022Estradiol is an ovarian steroid hormone that peaks shortly before ovulation and significantly affects various brain regions and neurotransmitter systems, with similar... (Review)
Review
Estradiol is an ovarian steroid hormone that peaks shortly before ovulation and significantly affects various brain regions and neurotransmitter systems, with similar and differential effects with progesterone, another ovarian hormone. Studies investigating the neurocognitive processes during the menstrual cycle have focused on the early follicular phase (EFP) characterized by low estradiol and progesterone levels and the mid-luteal phase (MLP) with high estradiol and progesterone levels. However, most studies have failed to include the ovulatory phase, characterized by high estradiol and low progesterone levels. Given the various hormonal changes in the menstrual cycle, we revisited studies suggesting that the menstrual cycle did not affect verbal and spatial abilities and observed that many contain mixed results. Comparing these studies makes it possible to identify relevant modulating factors, such as sample size, participant age, accurate selection of days for testing, asymmetrical practice effects, genetic polymorphisms, and task difficulty. More robust findings are related to improved mental rotation capacity during EFP with challenging tasks and differences in brain activation among menstrual cycle phases during the execution of spatial and verbal tasks. During MLP, less robust findings were observed, possibly modulated by the complex effects of the two hormones on the brain. In conclusion, we propose that it is crucial to include all three menstrual cycle phases and consider these modulating factors to avoid confounding findings.
Topics: Cognition; Estradiol; Female; Follicular Phase; Humans; Luteal Phase; Menstrual Cycle; Ovulation; Progesterone; Spatial Navigation
PubMed: 34560130
DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113593 -
Experimental Physiology Oct 2018What is the topic of this review? We review methodological considerations for the inclusion of women in sex and menstrual cycle phase comparison studies. What advances... (Review)
Review
NEW FINDINGS
What is the topic of this review? We review methodological considerations for the inclusion of women in sex and menstrual cycle phase comparison studies. What advances does it highlight? Improving the methodological design for studies exploring sex differences, menstrual cycle phase differences and/or endogenous versus exogenous female sex hormones will help to close the gap in our understanding of the effects of endogenous and exogenous hormones on exercise science and sports medicine outcomes.
ABSTRACT
In recent years, the increase in scientific literature exploring sex differences has been beneficial to both clinicians and allied health science professionals, although female athletes are still significantly under-represented in sport and exercise science research. Women have faced exclusion throughout history though the complexities of sociocultural marginalization and biomedical disinterest in women's health. These complexities have contributed to challenges of studying women and examining sex differences. One underlying complexity to methodological design may be hormonal perturbations of the menstrual cycle. The biphasic responses of oestrogen and progesterone across the menstrual cycle significantly influence physiological responses, which contribute to exercise capacity and adaptation in women. Moreover, oral contraceptives add complexity through the introduction of varying concentrations of circulating exogenous oestrogen and progesterone, which may moderate physiological adaptations to exercise in a different manner to endogenous ovarian hormones. Thus, applied sport and exercise science research focusing on women remains limited, in part, by poor methodological design that does not define reproductive status. By highlighting specific differences between phases with regard to hormone perturbations and the systems that are affected, methodological inconsistencies can be reduced, thereby improving scientific design that will enable focused research on female athletes in sports science and evaluation of sex differences in responses to exercise. The aims of this review are to highlight the differences between endogenous and exogenous hormone profiles across a standard 28-32 day menstrual cycle, with the goal to improve methodological design for studies exploring sex differences, menstrual cycle phase differences and/or endogenous versus exogenous female sex hormones.
Topics: Adaptation, Physiological; Athletes; Contraceptives, Oral; Estrogens; Exercise; Female; Humans; Menstrual Cycle; Progesterone; Sex Characteristics; Sports
PubMed: 30051938
DOI: 10.1113/EP086797 -
Physiology & Behavior Apr 2021Psychological responses such as affect, mood, motivation, anxiety are important considerations for exercise adherence. A large body of evidence indicates that exercise...
Psychological responses such as affect, mood, motivation, anxiety are important considerations for exercise adherence. A large body of evidence indicates that exercise intensity is a controllable variable capable of increasing positive feelings. Investigations thus far, however, have not considered that the higher incidence of negative psychological responses in women could be due to physiological particularities of the menstrual cycle (MC). This project investigates the effect of MC phases and exercise intensity on psychophysiological responses in fourteen healthy, eumenorrheic and physically active women. Measuring psychophysiological responses before, during and after exercise, participants completed two exercise bouts of 15 min above and below the anaerobic threshold in the follicular phase (FP) and the luteal phase (LP) of the MC. Lower levels of depression and hostility and higher levels of vigor, affect and motivation were observed during exercise in the FP. Exercise at moderate intensity elicited more positive psychological responses compared to high-intensity exercise, highlighted by findings that affect and rating of perceived exertion were worse in the LP without changes in physiological responses. These findings suggest no effect of MC on physiological responses, but psychological responses are impaired in the LP, worsening particularly during exercise at high intensity.
Topics: Anaerobic Threshold; Exercise; Female; Follicular Phase; Humans; Luteal Phase; Menstrual Cycle
PubMed: 33333131
DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.113290