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Nature Reviews. Microbiology Mar 2005Despite the success of the WHO-led smallpox eradication programme a quarter of a century ago, there remains considerable fear that variola virus, or other related... (Review)
Review
Despite the success of the WHO-led smallpox eradication programme a quarter of a century ago, there remains considerable fear that variola virus, or other related pathogenic poxviruses such as monkeypox, could re-emerge and spread disease in the human population. Even today, we are still mostly ignorant about why most poxvirus infections of vertebrate hosts show strict species specificity, or how zoonotic poxvirus infections occur when poxviruses occasionally leap into novel host species. Poxvirus tropism at the cellular level seems to be regulated by intracellular events downstream of virus binding and entry, rather than at the level of specific host receptors as is the case for many other viruses. This review summarizes our current understanding of poxvirus tropism and host range, and discusses the prospects of exploiting host-restricted poxvirus vectors for vaccines, gene therapy or tissue-targeted oncolytic viral therapies for the treatment of human cancers.
Topics: Animals; Genes, Viral; Genetic Vectors; Humans; Poxviridae; Poxviridae Infections; Viral Vaccines; Virus Replication; Zoonoses
PubMed: 15738948
DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro1099 -
Viruses Apr 2014Poxviruses are important pathogens of man and numerous domestic and wild animal species. Cross species (including zoonotic) poxvirus infections can have drastic... (Review)
Review
Poxviruses are important pathogens of man and numerous domestic and wild animal species. Cross species (including zoonotic) poxvirus infections can have drastic consequences for the recipient host. Bats are a diverse order of mammals known to carry lethal viral zoonoses such as Rabies, Hendra, Nipah, and SARS. Consequent targeted research is revealing bats to be infected with a rich diversity of novel viruses. Poxviruses were recently identified in bats and the settings in which they were found were dramatically different. Here, we review the natural history of poxviruses in bats and highlight the relationship of the viruses to each other and their context in the Poxviridae family. In addition to considering the zoonotic potential of these viruses, we reflect on the broader implications of these findings. Specifically, the potential to explore and exploit this newfound relationship to study coevolution and cross species transmission together with fundamental aspects of poxvirus host tropism as well as bat virology and immunology.
Topics: Animals; Chiroptera; Poxviridae; Poxviridae Infections; Zoonoses
PubMed: 24704730
DOI: 10.3390/v6041564 -
Viruses Dec 2022Considering that vaccination against smallpox with live vaccinia virus led to serious adverse effects in some cases, the WHO, after declaration of the global eradication... (Review)
Review
Considering that vaccination against smallpox with live vaccinia virus led to serious adverse effects in some cases, the WHO, after declaration of the global eradication of smallpox in 1980, strongly recommended to discontinue the vaccination in all countries. This led to the loss of immunity against not only smallpox but also other zoonotic orthopoxvirus infections in humans over the past years. An increasing number of human infections with zoonotic orthopoxviruses and, first of all, monkeypox, force us to reconsider a possible re-emergence of smallpox or a similar disease as a result of natural evolution of these viruses. The review contains a brief analysis of the results of studies on genomic organization and evolution of human pathogenic orthopoxviruses, development of modern methods for diagnosis, vaccination, and chemotherapy of smallpox, monkeypox, and other zoonotic human orthopoxvirus infections.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Smallpox; Mpox (monkeypox); Variola virus; Poxviridae Infections; Orthopoxvirus; Zoonoses; Monkeypox virus
PubMed: 36680142
DOI: 10.3390/v15010103 -
Virology Journal Feb 2011Avipoxviruses (APVs) belong to the Chordopoxvirinae subfamily of the Poxviridae family. APVs are distributed worldwide and cause disease in domestic, pet and wild birds... (Review)
Review
Avipoxviruses (APVs) belong to the Chordopoxvirinae subfamily of the Poxviridae family. APVs are distributed worldwide and cause disease in domestic, pet and wild birds of many species. APVs are transmitted by aerosols and biting insects, particularly mosquitoes and arthropods and are usually named after the bird species from which they were originally isolated. The virus species Fowlpox virus (FWPV) causes disease in poultry and associated mortality is usually low, but in flocks under stress (other diseases, high production) mortality can reach up to 50%. APVs are also major players in viral vaccine vector development for diseases in human and veterinary medicine. Abortive infection in mammalian cells (no production of progeny viruses) and their ability to accommodate multiple gene inserts are some of the characteristics that make APVs promising vaccine vectors. Although abortive infection in mammalian cells conceivably represents a major vaccine bio-safety advantage, molecular mechanisms restricting APVs to certain hosts are not yet fully understood. This review summarizes the current knowledge relating to APVs, including classification, morphogenesis, host-virus interactions, diagnostics and disease, and also highlights the use of APVs as recombinant vaccine vectors.
Topics: Animals; Avipoxvirus; Bird Diseases; Birds; Drug Carriers; Genetic Vectors; Humans; Poultry Diseases; Poxviridae Infections; Viral Vaccines
PubMed: 21291547
DOI: 10.1186/1743-422X-8-49 -
Revue Scientifique Et Technique... Apr 2000During and after the smallpox eradication campaign, human cases of monkeypox appeared in West and Central Africa, as isolated cases or as small epidemics. Since... (Review)
Review
During and after the smallpox eradication campaign, human cases of monkeypox appeared in West and Central Africa, as isolated cases or as small epidemics. Since inter-human transmission has never or only very exceptionally been documented, monkeypox does not represent a serious threat to humans. The virus reservoir is among tree squirrels living in the tropical rain forests of Africa and humans are infected by hunting, killing and skinning these animals. However, the modernization of society lessens human contact with the virus reservoir. Since the eradication of smallpox, stocks of variola virus have been maintained; whether these stocks should now be destroyed is a political question, which is seriously compromised by mistrust between countries.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Monkeypox virus; Poxviridae Infections; Primates; Public Health; Smallpox; Zoonoses
PubMed: 11189729
DOI: 10.20506/rst.19.1.1207 -
Viruses Feb 2022Although variola virus (VARV) has been eradicated through widespread vaccination, other pathogenic for humans circulate in nature. Recently, new , including some able...
Although variola virus (VARV) has been eradicated through widespread vaccination, other pathogenic for humans circulate in nature. Recently, new , including some able to infect humans, have been found and their complete genomes have been sequenced. Questions about the mutation rate and the emergence of new threats to humankind as a result of the evolution of circulating remain open. Based on contemporary data on ancient VARV DNA and DNA of new species, an analysis of the molecular evolution of was carried out and the timescale of their emergence was estimated. It was calculated that the of the Old and New Worlds separated approximately 40,000 years ago; the recently discovered Akhmeta virus and Alaskapox virus separated from other approximately 10,000-20,000 years ago; the rest of modern orthopoxvirus species originated from 1700 to 6000 years ago, with the exception of VARV, which emerged in approximately 300 AD. Later, there was a separation of genetic variants of some species, so the monkeypox virus West African subtype originated approximately 600 years ago, and the VARV minor alastrim subtype emerged approximately 300 years ago.
Topics: Animals; Databases, Genetic; Evolution, Molecular; Mutation Rate; Orthopoxvirus; Phylogeny; Poxviridae Infections
PubMed: 35215981
DOI: 10.3390/v14020388 -
Viruses Aug 2017Cells have multiple means to induce apoptosis in response to viral infection. Poxviruses must prevent activation of cellular apoptosis to ensure successful replication.... (Review)
Review
Cells have multiple means to induce apoptosis in response to viral infection. Poxviruses must prevent activation of cellular apoptosis to ensure successful replication. These viruses devote a substantial portion of their genome to immune evasion. Many of these immune evasion products expressed during infection antagonize cellular apoptotic pathways. Poxvirus products target multiple points in both the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways, thereby mitigating apoptosis during infection. Interestingly, recent evidence indicates that poxviruses also hijack cellular means of eliminating apoptotic bodies as a means to spread cell to cell through a process called apoptotic mimicry. Poxviruses are the causative agent of many human and veterinary diseases. Further, there is substantial interest in developing these viruses as vectors for a variety of uses including vaccine delivery and as oncolytic viruses to treat certain human cancers. Therefore, an understanding of the molecular mechanisms through which poxviruses regulate the cellular apoptotic pathways remains a top research priority. In this review, we consider anti-apoptotic strategies of poxviruses focusing on three relevant poxvirus genera: , , and . All three genera express multiple products to inhibit both extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways with many of these products required for virulence.
Topics: Animals; Apoptosis; Caspases; Host-Pathogen Interactions; Humans; Immune Evasion; Leporipoxvirus; Molluscipoxvirus; Orthopoxvirus; Poxviridae; Poxviridae Infections; Signal Transduction; Viral Proteins; Virulence; Virus Replication
PubMed: 28786952
DOI: 10.3390/v9080215 -
Viruses Sep 2020Capripox viruses, with their members "lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV)", "goatpox virus (GTPV)" and "sheeppox virus (SPPV)", are described as the most serious pox...
Capripox viruses, with their members "lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV)", "goatpox virus (GTPV)" and "sheeppox virus (SPPV)", are described as the most serious pox diseases of production animals. A GTPV isolate and a SPPV isolate were sequenced in a combined approach using nanopore MinION sequencing to obtain long reads and Illumina high throughput sequencing for short precise reads to gain full-length high-quality genome sequences. Concomitantly, sheep and goats were inoculated with SPPV and GTPV strains, respectively. During the animal trial, varying infection routes were compared: a combined intravenous and subcutaneous infection, an only intranasal infection, and the contact infection between naïve and inoculated animals. Sheep inoculated with SPPV showed no clinical signs, only a very small number of genome-positive samples and a low-level antibody reaction. In contrast, all GTPV inoculated or in-contact goats developed severe clinical signs with high viral genome loads observed in all tested matrices. Furthermore, seroconversion was detected in nearly all goats and no differences concerning the severity of the disease depending on the inoculation route were observed. Conclusively, the employed SPPV strain has the properties of an attenuated vaccine strain, consistent with the genetic data, whereas the GTPV strain represents a highly virulent field strain.
Topics: Animals; Capripoxvirus; DNA, Viral; Female; Genome, Viral; Goat Diseases; Goats; Male; Phylogeny; Poxviridae Infections; Ruminants; Sheep; Sheep Diseases; Vaccines, Attenuated
PubMed: 32998423
DOI: 10.3390/v12101098 -
Frontiers in Immunology 2020As pattern recognition receptors, cytosolic DNA sensors quickly induce an effective innate immune response. Poxvirus, a large DNA virus, is capable of evading the host... (Review)
Review
As pattern recognition receptors, cytosolic DNA sensors quickly induce an effective innate immune response. Poxvirus, a large DNA virus, is capable of evading the host antiviral innate immune response. In this review, we summarize the latest studies on how poxvirus is sensed by the host innate immune system and how poxvirus-encoded proteins antagonize DNA sensors. A comprehensive understanding of the interplay between poxvirus and DNA-sensing antiviral immune responses of the host will contribute to the development of new antiviral therapies and vaccines in the future.
Topics: Animals; Biomarkers; DNA, Viral; DNA-Activated Protein Kinase; DNA-Binding Proteins; Disease Resistance; Host-Pathogen Interactions; Humans; Immunity, Innate; Nuclear Proteins; Nucleotidyltransferases; Phosphoproteins; Poxviridae; Poxviridae Infections; Signal Transduction; Toll-Like Receptor 9
PubMed: 32983084
DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01637 -
Bacteriological Reviews Mar 1973
Review
Topics: Animals; Antigens, Viral; Antiviral Agents; Chick Embryo; Culture Techniques; Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral; Disease Reservoirs; Haplorhini; Hemagglutinins, Viral; Humans; Monkey Diseases; Poxviridae; Poxviridae Infections; Smallpox; Virus Replication
PubMed: 4349404
DOI: 10.1128/br.37.1.1-18.1973