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Transactions of the American Clinical... 2002Weapons of mass destruction can be used to harm and terrorize populations. Such weapons include those with chemical, nuclear or biological properties. Obviously computer... (Review)
Review
Weapons of mass destruction can be used to harm and terrorize populations. Such weapons include those with chemical, nuclear or biological properties. Obviously computer viruses can add additional barriers to a quick response. The most effective, least costly and greatest threats are biologicals. Biological terror is not new, and biological weapons have been used for centuries. However, as a result of modern technology, the risks are greater now and the outcomes more terrible. Today they include live pathogens, various toxins, and theoretically "bioregulators"--biochemicals affecting cell signaling. Altered cell signaling could be used to induce apoptosis-cell death, or a heightened outpouring of cytokines mimicking overwhelming sepsis, or even an intracellular, biochemical "strike" causing cellular paralysis. Biological weaponeers now have the frightening ability to alter the genetic makeup of pathogens, rendering them resistant not only to available antibiotic therapy but also to currently effective vaccines. In dark corners of some fringe groups, bioweaponeers are searching for the capability of designing pathogens that target specific races, by virtue of discriminating ligands (1). The resulting morbidity and mortality from use of any biological weapons will be accompanied by chaos, governmental and social instability, panic, an extraordinary utilization of available resources, and an ongoing epidemic of sleepless nights (2,3). Herein I will review some of the issues and some of the currently available biological weapons. The major goal is to highlight the clinical presentations of patients with infections that could be used as biological weapons.
Topics: Animals; Anthrax; Bioterrorism; Hemorrhagic Fevers, Viral; Humans; Monkeypox virus; Poxviridae Infections; Smallpox; Tularemia; United States
PubMed: 12053717
DOI: No ID Found -
Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease 2023Therapeutic and vaccine development for human poxvirus infections (e.g., monkeypox (mpox) virus, variola virus, molluscum contagiosum virus, orf virus) has been largely... (Review)
Review
Therapeutic and vaccine development for human poxvirus infections (e.g., monkeypox (mpox) virus, variola virus, molluscum contagiosum virus, orf virus) has been largely deserted, especially after the eradication of smallpox by 1980. Human mpox is a self-limited disease confined to Central and West Africa for decades. However, since April 2022, mpox has quickly emerged as a multi-country outbreak, urgently calling for effective antiviral agents and vaccines to control mpox. Here, this review highlights possible therapeutic options (e.g., tecovirimat, brincidofovir, cidofovir) and other strategies (e.g., vaccines, intravenous vaccinia immune globulin) for the management of human poxvirus infections worldwide.
Topics: Humans; Smallpox; Variola virus; Mpox (monkeypox); Poxviridae Infections; Cidofovir; Monkeypox virus
PubMed: 36539022
DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2022.102528 -
PLoS Pathogens Jul 2015
Review
Topics: Animals; Host-Parasite Interactions; Humans; Poxviridae; Poxviridae Infections; Virion
PubMed: 26135739
DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004904 -
Journal of Comparative Pathology 2012Current understanding of capripoxvirus pathogenesis is limited since there have been no detailed studies examining cell tropism at well-defined intervals following...
Current understanding of capripoxvirus pathogenesis is limited since there have been no detailed studies examining cell tropism at well-defined intervals following infection. We undertook time-course studies in sheep and goats following inoculation of sheeppox or goatpox viruses in their respective homologous hosts, and examined tissues by light microscopy. A monoclonal antibody generated to a sheeppox virus core protein was used for immunohistochemical detection of viral antigen in tissue sections. Lesions and virus antigen were observed consistently in the skin, lung and lymph nodes. Antigen was detected at 6 and 8 days post inoculation for skin and lung, respectively, within cells which appeared to be of monocyte/macrophage lineage. In sheep skin capripoxvirus immunoreactivity was detected within previously unreported large multinucleated cells. In the lung, double immunolabelling detected the simultaneous expression of capripoxvirus antigen and cytokeratin indicating the presence of virus within pneumocytes. Lung double immunolabelling also detected the expression of capripoxvirus antigen in CD68(+) cells, confirming the presence of viral antigen within macrophages. Based on early detection of infected macrophages, dissemination of virus within the host and localization to tissues likely occurred through cells of the monocyte/macrophage lineage. Histological findings revealed similarities with both monkeypox and smallpox, thus capripoxvirus infection in sheep and goats may represent useful models with which to study strategies for poxvirus-specific virus vaccine concepts and therapeutics.
Topics: Animals; Antigens, Viral; Capripoxvirus; Goat Diseases; Goats; Poxviridae Infections; Sheep; Sheep Diseases
PubMed: 22297076
DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2011.12.001 -
Viruses Apr 2023Lumpy Skin disease (LSD) is an economically important disease in cattle caused by the LSD virus (LSDV) of the genus , while pseudocowpox (PCP) is a widely distributed...
Lumpy Skin disease (LSD) is an economically important disease in cattle caused by the LSD virus (LSDV) of the genus , while pseudocowpox (PCP) is a widely distributed zoonotic cattle disease caused by the PCP virus (PCPV) of the genus . Though both viral pox infections are reportedly present in Nigeria, similarities in their clinical presentation and limited access to laboratories often lead to misdiagnosis in the field. This study investigated suspected LSD outbreaks in organized and transhumance cattle herds in Nigeria in 2020. A total of 42 scab/skin biopsy samples were collected from 16 outbreaks of suspected LSD in five northern States of Nigeria. The samples were analyzed using a high-resolution multiplex melting (HRM) assay to differentiate poxviruses belonging to , , and genera. LSDV was characterized using four gene segments, namely the RNA polymerase 30 kDa subunit (RPO30), G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), the extracellular enveloped virus (EEV) glycoprotein and CaPV homolog of the variola virus B22R. Likewise, the partial B2L gene of PCPV was also analyzed. Nineteen samples (45.2%) were positive according to the HRM assay for LSDV, and five (11.9%) were co-infected with LSDV and PCPV. The multiple sequence alignments of the GPCR, EEV, and B22R showed 100% similarity among the Nigerian LSDV samples, unlike the RPO30 phylogeny, which showed two clusters. Some of the Nigerian LSDVs clustered within LSDV SG II were with commonly circulating LSDV field isolates in Africa, the Middle East, and Europe, while the remaining Nigerian LSDVs produced a unique sub-group. The B2L sequences of Nigerian PCPVs were 100% identical and clustered within the PCPV group containing cattle/Reindeer isolates, close to PCPVs from Zambia and Botswana. The results show the diversity of Nigerian LSDV strains. This paper also reports the first documented co-infection of LSDV and PCPV in Nigeria.
Topics: Animals; Cattle; Nigeria; Farms; Lumpy skin disease virus; Poxviridae Infections; Capripoxvirus; Cattle Diseases; Disease Outbreaks; Zoonoses; Phylogeny
PubMed: 37243137
DOI: 10.3390/v15051051 -
PLoS Pathogens Oct 2018
Topics: Biohazard Release; Dual Use Research; Humans; Orthopoxvirus; Poxviridae Infections
PubMed: 30286197
DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007344 -
Brazilian Journal of Microbiology :... Jun 2022The pseudocowpox virus (PCPV) is recognized for causing exanthematic lesions in cattle and humans. The diagnosis is important because it is a zoonosis and its clinical...
The pseudocowpox virus (PCPV) is recognized for causing exanthematic lesions in cattle and humans. The diagnosis is important because it is a zoonosis and its clinical signs can be confused with foot-and-mouth disease, a high-impact bovine disease in livestock. The objective of this work is to validate a SYBR Green qPCR and a conventional PCR for virus detection in bovine samples. Detection limit tests, repeatability, reproducibility, sensitivity, and specificity were compared. When two analysts were compared, results demonstrated that training and pipetting influence the repeatability. The qPCR was more sensitive than conventional PCR but showed nonspecific reactions distinguishable by the melting curve. Both showed high repeatability and reproducibility.
Topics: Animals; Cattle; Cattle Diseases; Pathology, Molecular; Poxviridae Infections; Pseudocowpox Virus; Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction; Reproducibility of Results; Sensitivity and Specificity
PubMed: 35220553
DOI: 10.1007/s42770-021-00664-3 -
Clinical Immunology (Orlando, Fla.) Oct 2022Monkeypox is a zoonotic Orthopoxvirus which has predominantly affected humans living in western and central Africa since the 1970s. Type I and II interferon signaling,... (Review)
Review
Monkeypox is a zoonotic Orthopoxvirus which has predominantly affected humans living in western and central Africa since the 1970s. Type I and II interferon signaling, NK cell function, and serologic immunity are critical for host immunity against monkeypox. Monkeypox can evade host viral recognition and block interferon signaling, leading to overall case fatality rates of up to 11%. The incidence of monkeypox has increased since cessation of smallpox vaccination. In 2022, a global outbreak emerged, predominantly affecting males, with exclusive human-to-human transmission and more phenotypic variability than earlier outbreaks. Available vaccines are safe and effective tools for prevention of severe disease, but supply is limited. Now considered a public health emergency, more studies are needed to better characterize at-risk populations and to develop new anti-viral therapies.
Topics: Communicable Diseases; Humans; Interferons; Male; Mpox (monkeypox); Monkeypox virus; Orthopoxvirus; Poxviridae Infections
PubMed: 36067982
DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2022.109108 -
Journal of Infection in Developing... Jun 2008The presence of zoonotic poxviruses in nature represents a potential human health risk that has to be re-evaluated by health authorities not only in developing... (Review)
Review
The presence of zoonotic poxviruses in nature represents a potential human health risk that has to be re-evaluated by health authorities not only in developing countries, but also in many developed countries. For example, buffalopox virus infection remains to be a threat to humans and cattle in India, and monkeypox virus infection persists in several inhabited places in Africa and, more recently, in the USA. There are also a great number of zoonotic transmissions of cowpox virus from cats to humans in Europe. For almost a decade in Brazil, vaccinia-like viruses have been isolated from human and cattle infections. This review examines the ability of potentially pathogenic orthopoxviruses, including feral versions of vaccinia virus vaccine, to persist in nature and re-emerge for reasons we do not yet understand.
Topics: Animals; Developing Countries; Humans; Molecular Sequence Data; Orthopoxvirus; Poxviridae Infections; Viral Vaccines; Zoonoses
PubMed: 19738346
DOI: 10.3855/jidc.258 -
Virology Journal Apr 2021Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and goat pox (GTP) are two devastating animal epidemic diseases that affect small ruminants. Vaccination is one of the most important...
BACKGROUND
Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and goat pox (GTP) are two devastating animal epidemic diseases that affect small ruminants. Vaccination is one of the most important measures to prevent and control these two severe infectious diseases.
METHODS
In this study, we vaccinated sheep with PPR and POX vaccines to compare the changes in the antibody levels between animals vaccinated with PPRV and POX vaccines alone and those co-infected with both vaccines simultaneously. The cell infection model was used to explore the interference mechanism between the vaccines in vitro. The antibody levels were detected with the commercial ELISA kit. The Real-time Quantitative PCR fluorescent quantitative PCR method was employed to detect the viral load changes and cytokines expression after the infection.
RESULTS
The concurrent immunization of GTP and PPR vaccine enhanced the PPR vaccine's immune effect but inhibited the immune effect of the GTP vaccine. After the infection, GTP and PPR vaccine strains caused cytopathic effect; co-infection with GTP and PPR vaccine strains inhibited the replication of PPR vaccine strains; co-infection with GTP and PPR vaccine strains enhanced the replication of GTP vaccine strains. Moreover, virus mixed infection enhanced the mRNA expressions of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, IFN-α, and IFN-β by 2-170 times. GTP vaccine strains infection alone can enhanced the mRNA expression of IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, while the expression of IFN-α mRNA is inhibited. PPR vaccine strains alone can enhanced the mRNA expression of IFN-α, IFN-β, TNF-α, and has little effect the mRNA expression of IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10. The results showed that GTP and PPR vaccine used simultaneously in sheep enhanced the PPR vaccine's immune effect but inhibited the immune effect of the GTP vaccine in vivo. Furthermore, an infection of GTP and PPR vaccine strains caused significant cell lesions in vitro; co-infection with GTP + PPR vaccine strains inhibited the replication of PPR vaccine strains, while the co-infection of GTP followed by PPR infection enhanced the replication of GTP vaccine strains. Moreover, virus infection enhanced the expressions of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, IFN-α, and IFN-β.
CONCLUSIONS
Peste des petits ruminants and capripox vaccine strains interfere with each other in vivo and vitro.
Topics: Animals; Antibodies, Viral; Coinfection; Guanosine Triphosphate; Interleukin-10; Interleukin-6; Peste-des-Petits-Ruminants; Poxviridae Infections; RNA, Messenger; Sheep; Sheep Diseases; Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha; Viral Vaccines
PubMed: 33827620
DOI: 10.1186/s12985-021-01539-7