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Cuadernos de Bioetica : Revista Oficial... 2017Motherhood by subrogation is an issue that directly affects human rights and, ultimately, human dignity. Therefore, if we want to give an adequate response to this...
Motherhood by subrogation is an issue that directly affects human rights and, ultimately, human dignity. Therefore, if we want to give an adequate response to this issue, it is essential to reflect on how this practice affects the dignity and rights of the people involved in it and, more specifically, the pregnant mother. This study tries to show how in relation to the latter, maternity by subrogation directly contradicts some basic requirements of human dignity, since it reifies, instrumentalizes, convert into an object of commerce, and disregards the personal uniqueness of pregnant women.
Topics: Female; Human Rights; Humans; Personhood; Pregnancy; Pregnant Women; Surrogate Mothers
PubMed: 28621959
DOI: No ID Found -
Cuadernos de Bioetica : Revista Oficial... 2017Since two years ago Spanish public opinion is living an intense debate on the ethical and legal aspects about surrogacy. There is a shared concern about the risks of...
Since two years ago Spanish public opinion is living an intense debate on the ethical and legal aspects about surrogacy. There is a shared concern about the risks of exploitation for women related to commercial surrogacy. To get rid of them, and make possible at the same time that people who is not able to gestate could become father/mother, it has been proposed to regulate altruistic surrogacy. In order to defend this proposal it is said that there is an analogy between altruistic organ donation and altruistic surrogacy: you can help a person in need giving an organ or your ability to gestate. In this paper I confront both considerations. First, there is not a real analogy between organ donation and altruistic surrogacy. And second, if we think seriously a possible regulation for altruistic surrogacy we will find many problems with difficult or impossible solutions.
Topics: Altruism; Bioethical Issues; Female; Humans; Pregnancy; Public Opinion; Spain; Surrogate Mothers
PubMed: 28621963
DOI: No ID Found -
Fertility and Sterility Mar 2019To study heterosexual and gay couples' relationship with their surrogate and their disclosure decisions when the surrogacy arrangement was completed domestically... (Comparative Study)
Comparative Study
OBJECTIVE
To study heterosexual and gay couples' relationship with their surrogate and their disclosure decisions when the surrogacy arrangement was completed domestically compared with internationally.
DESIGN
Cross-sectional study.
SETTING
Not applicable.
PATIENT(S)
Participants were 40 gay couples and 76 heterosexual couples who had domestic surrogacy in the United Kingdom (UK) (n = 38) or international surrogacy in the United States (n = 58) or Asia (20). Most (75%) of the children were aged <4 years.
INTERVENTION(S)
Online surveys containing open-ended and multiple-choice questions.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)
Experiences of finding a surrogate, relationship with the surrogate, and disclosure to the child were examined among UK parents who had undergone surrogacy in the UK, United States, or India/Thailand.
RESULT(S)
Parents who had surrogacy in the UK and United States felt very involved in the pregnancy compared with those who had surrogacy in Asia. Couples whose surrogacy was completed in Asia were less likely to want contact with their surrogate after the birth and were also less likely to have any current contact with the surrogate. Parents who had surrogacy in the UK and United States described positive relationships with their surrogate. Gay couples intended to tell their child about surrogacy more than heterosexual couples.
CONCLUSION(S)
The specific country where couples conducted their surrogacy arrangement (i.e. United States, UK, or Thailand/India) was associated with how involved they were in the pregnancy and their contact with the surrogate over time. Limitations of the study include use of survey methodology and that the representativeness of the sample is not known.
Topics: Adult; Asia; Child, Preschool; Cross-Sectional Studies; Female; Heterosexuality; Homosexuality, Female; Homosexuality, Male; Humans; Infant; Interpersonal Relations; Male; Middle Aged; Parent-Child Relations; Parents; Pregnancy; Sexual Behavior; Sexual and Gender Minorities; Surrogate Mothers; Surveys and Questionnaires; Truth Disclosure; United Kingdom; United States
PubMed: 30827525
DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2018.11.029 -
Reproductive Health Nov 2008Surrogacy involves one woman (surrogate mother) carrying a child for another person/s (commissioning person/couple), based on a mutual agreement requiring the child to...
Surrogacy involves one woman (surrogate mother) carrying a child for another person/s (commissioning person/couple), based on a mutual agreement requiring the child to be handed over to the commissioning person/couple following birth. Reasons for seeking surrogacy include situations where a woman has non-functional or absent reproductive organs, or as a remedy for recurrent pregnancy loss. Additionally, surrogacy may find application in any medical context where pregnancy is contraindicated, or where a couple consisting of two males seek to become parents through oocyte donation. Gestational surrogacy is one of the main issues at the forefront of bioethics and the advanced reproductive technologies, representing an important challenge to medical law. This analysis reviews the history of surrogacy and clinical and legal issues pertaining to this branch of reproductive medicine. Interestingly, the Medical Council of Ireland does not acknowledge surrogacy in its current practice guidelines, nor is there specific legislation addressing surrogacy in Ireland at present. We therefore have developed a contract-based model for surrogacy in which, courts in Ireland may consider when confronted with a surrogacy dispute, and formulated a system to resolve any potential dispute arising from a surrogacy arrangement. While the 2005 report by the Commission on Assisted Human Reproduction (CAHR) is an expert opinion guiding the Oireachtas' development of specific legislation governing assisted human reproduction and surrogacy, our report represents independent scholarship on the contractual elements of surrogacy with particular focus on how Irish courts might decide on surrogacy matters in a modern day Ireland. This joint medico-legal collaborative also reviews the contract for services arrangement between the commissioning person/s and the surrogate, and the extent to which the contract may be enforced.
PubMed: 18983640
DOI: 10.1186/1742-4755-5-9 -
Fertility and Sterility Mar 2018To compare clinical outcomes of in vitro fertilization (IVF) cycles with the use of gestational carriers (GCs) with non-GC IVF cycles.
OBJECTIVE
To compare clinical outcomes of in vitro fertilization (IVF) cycles with the use of gestational carriers (GCs) with non-GC IVF cycles.
DESIGN
Retrospective cohort study of assisted reproductive technology (ART) cycles performed with (24,269) and without (1,313,452) the use of a GC.
SETTING
ART centers.
PATIENT(S)
Infertile patients seeking IVF with or without use of a GC.
INTERVENTIONS(S)
Autologous and donor oocyte cycles, fresh and cryopreserved embryo transfer cycles.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)
Live birth rate (LBR), twin and high-order multiple birth rates.
RESULT(S)
Approximately 2% of embryo transfers used a GC. Per embryo transfer, GCs had greater pregnancy rate and LBR across all IVF types compared with non-GC cycles in crude models and models adjusted a priori for potential confounders. For women with uterine-factor infertility, embryo transfer with the use of a GC resulted in a higher odds of live birth for autologous fresh embryos and for cryopreserved embryos compared with patients with non-uterine-factor infertility diagnoses.
CONCLUSION(S)
GC benefits LBRs for some patients seeking ART. The highest LBRs occurred when the indication for GC was uterine-factor infertility.
Topics: Adult; Cryopreservation; Embryo Implantation; Embryo Transfer; Female; Fertility; Fertilization in Vitro; Humans; Infertility, Female; Linear Models; Live Birth; Logistic Models; Male; Odds Ratio; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Rate; Pregnancy, Multiple; Retrospective Studies; Risk Factors; Surrogate Mothers; Treatment Outcome
PubMed: 29428314
DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2017.11.011 -
Animals : An Open Access Journal From... Mar 2021Orangutans depend on social learning for the acquisition of survival skills. The development of skills is not usually assessed in rescued orphans' pre-release. We...
Orangutans depend on social learning for the acquisition of survival skills. The development of skills is not usually assessed in rescued orphans' pre-release. We collected data of seven orphans over an 18-months-period to monitor the progress of ontogenetic changes. The orphans, 1.5-9 years old, were immersed in a natural forest environment with human surrogate mothers and other orphans. Social interactions deviated significantly from those of wild mother-reared immatures. Infants spent more time playing socially with peers, at the expense of resting and solitary play. Infants were also more often and at an earlier age distant from their human surrogate mothers than wild immatures are from their biological mothers. We found important changes towards an orangutan-typical lifestyle in 4- to 7-year-old orphans, corresponding to the weaning age in maternally reared immatures. The older orphans spent less time interacting with human surrogate mothers or peers, started to use the canopy more than lower forest strata and began to sleep in nests in the forest. Their time budgets resembled those of wild adults. In conclusion, juvenile orphans can develop capacities that qualify them as candidates for release back into natural habitat when protected from humanising influences and immersed in a species-typical environment.
PubMed: 33802019
DOI: 10.3390/ani11030767 -
Indian Journal of Public Health 2013The human body is a wonderful machine. The future of child birth in the form of test tube babies, surrogate motherhood through new reproductive and cloning technology... (Review)
Review
The human body is a wonderful machine. The future of child birth in the form of test tube babies, surrogate motherhood through new reproductive and cloning technology will introduce undreamt of possibilities in the sexual arena. Surrogacy is a method of assisted reproduction whereby a woman agrees to become pregnant for the purpose of gestating and giving birth to a child for others to raise. In some jurisdictions the possibility of surrogacy has been allowed and the intended parents may be recognized as the legal parents from birth. Commercial surrogacy, or "Womb for rent", is a growing business in India. In our rapidly globalizing world, the growth of reproductive tourism is a fairly recent phenomenon. Surrogacy business is exploiting poor women in country like India already having with an alarmingly high maternal death rate. This paper talks about paternity issues and women's right to health in context of surrogacy. Government must seriously consider enacting a law to regulate surrogacy in India in order to protect and guide couples going in for such an option. Without a foolproof legal framework, patients will invariably be misled and the surrogates exploited.
Topics: Female; Humans; India; Maternal Mortality; Policy; Risk Factors; Surrogate Mothers; Women's Rights
PubMed: 23873191
DOI: 10.4103/0019-557X.114984 -
BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth Jan 2019Advances in science and technology coupled with globalization are changing access to and utilization of reproductive health services. This includes the transnational... (Review)
Review
BACKGROUND
Advances in science and technology coupled with globalization are changing access to and utilization of reproductive health services. This includes the transnational phenomenon of families who use surrogate mothers to reproduce, with forms of altruistic and commercial surrogacy becoming more commonplace. Simultaneously, changes in law, regulation, and policy are necessary to protect surrogates, intended parents, and resulting children. These developments have been slow to adapt to challenges inherent to surrogacy arrangements, most specifically in low-and middle-income countries, including in South American countries.
METHODS
We conducted an interdisciplinary non-systematic literature review and legal analysis of existing and pending policy, laws, and regulations related to commercial surrogacy arrangements in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela. The review focused on articles that discussed topics of domestic and international law, policy, regulation, and governance related to commercial surrogacy. We queried PubMed, JSTOR, and Google Scholar for Spanish and English-language articles limited to those published between 2000 and 2016.
RESULTS
Our literature and legal review found a wide variance in how different countries address the issue, including two (Brazil and Uruguay) that have issued guidance attempting to clarify the legality of commercial surrogacy, others who have introduced surrogacy-specific legislation, and a final group with no specific legal mechanisms in place. Our extracted legal case studies also indicate that courts have a hard time interpreting existing law and its applicability to surrogacy. The influence of Catholicism also played a role in the adoption of surrogacy and other advanced reproductive technology (ART)-related legislation.
CONCLUSIONS
Changes in global infertility rates, the emergence of new family structures, and advancement of ART are factors that will influence future development of legal frameworks addressing surrogacy in South America. Despite a growing transnational market for commercial surrogacy in many of the countries examined, the current patchwork of policy does little to clarify what forms of surrogacy are legally permissible, nor do they adequately protect surrogates, intended parents, or the children themselves. This points to an urgent need for regional legal and policy harmonization specifically designed to align with public health and human rights principles.
Topics: Female; Human Rights; Humans; Medical Tourism; Pregnancy; Reproductive Techniques, Assisted; South America; Surrogate Mothers; Women's Rights
PubMed: 30691390
DOI: 10.1186/s12884-019-2182-1 -
The Nigerian Postgraduate Medical... 2022Babies birth anthropometric measurements are useful for retrospective assessment of foetal in utero health status, anticipatory care and growth monitoring. At community...
BACKGROUND
Babies birth anthropometric measurements are useful for retrospective assessment of foetal in utero health status, anticipatory care and growth monitoring. At community level, measurements other than birth weight (BW) may help predict low BW (LBW).
AIM
The aim of the study was to determine the mean anthropometric measurements of term babies, its comparability with standard values, acceptable cutoff and surrogate for LBW.
METHODS
A cross-sectional study involving 257 term babies delivered by booked mothers at the Sacred Heart Hospital Abeokuta and selected by systematic random sampling. BW, occipitofrontal circumference (OFC), chest circumference (CC), mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) and crown-heel length (CHL) were measured, and data were analysed using SPSS version 21 with significant P < 0.05 and confident interval of 95%.
RESULTS
Mean BW, CC, OFC, CHL and MUAC were 3.25 ± 0.47 kg, 33.32 ± 1.98 cm, 34.7 ± 1.93 cm, 48.16 ± 2.87 cm and 11.57 ± 1.41 cm, respectively, with no significant mean difference between male and female babies. The mean OFC was higher than the national standard, World Health Organization Multicentre Growth Reference Study (WHO-MGRS) and INTERGROWTH-21. The mean cutoff for LBW was OFC - 31.89 cm, CC - 29.56 cm, CHL- 43.33 cm and MUAC - 9.35 cm (P = 0.000) with OFC being the best surrogate of LBW at Sensitivity, Specificity and Degree of Accuracy/area under the curve of 66.7%, 97.6% and 82.1% respectively.
CONCLUSIONS
LBW babies had lower mean anthropometric cutoff values at variance from the WHO-MGRS and INTERGROWTH-21. Mean OFC was higher than both standards reflecting the need for cautious interpretation to prevent misdiagnosis of macrocephaly. We recommend OFC as an alternative for predicting LBW when access to weighing scale is a challenge.
Topics: Birth Weight; Cross-Sectional Studies; Female; Hospitals; Humans; Infant; Infant, Low Birth Weight; Infant, Newborn; Male; Nigeria; Retrospective Studies
PubMed: 35488581
DOI: 10.4103/npmj.npmj_556_21 -
Human Reproduction (Oxford, England) Oct 2023What are the experiences of single men using egg donation and surrogacy as a route to parenthood?
STUDY QUESTION
What are the experiences of single men using egg donation and surrogacy as a route to parenthood?
SUMMARY ANSWER
The fathers mainly had a positive relationship with the surrogate and simultaneously exercised agency, and experienced challenges, during the process of surrogacy.
WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY
Little is known about single men's experiences of egg donation and surrogacy arrangements. Studies have focused on single men's decision-making processes about the use of surrogacy and family functioning once these families are formed. Questions remain about how fathers experience and navigate the process of surrogacy as a single man.
STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION
The study is an international, in-depth qualitative study of fathers who chose to begin a family and parent alone. Data were collected between 2018 and 2021 as part of a larger study of solo fathers with different routes to parenthood. The present study reports on 21 fathers who used surrogacy and egg donation to begin their family. The average age of the fathers was 44 years, the fathers had young children aged 6 years or younger, and lived in countries across Australia, Europe, and North America.
PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS
Purposive sampling was used to recruit participants. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted. Interview topics included fathers' experiences of the process of using egg donation and surrogacy, and navigating the relationship with the surrogate. The audio-recorded interviews lasted around 2 hours and were subsequently transcribed verbatim.
MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE
Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis and qualitative content analysis. Most of the fathers chose an identifiable egg donor. Regarding the relationship with the surrogate, many fathers had remained in contact with her, but to differing degrees, and they generally reported positive relationships. Thematic analysis led to the identification of three themes relating to the fathers' experiences of choosing surrogacy as a single man: the ability to make choices; challenges and constraints; and special relationship.
LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION
Due to the variation between different countries regarding laws on surrogacy, contextual factors may have impacted on the experiences of single fathers, and the sample size was small. However, the research provides new insights into an area with little academic literature.
WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS
Given the growing trend of single men having children through surrogacy, the findings suggest that this new path to parenthood can be both rewarding and challenging. Single men may benefit from tailored support and counselling to help them navigate the surrogacy journey.
STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)
This study was funded by the Wellcome Trust (grant number 208013/Z/17/Z). The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER
n/a.
Topics: Humans; Male; Child; Pregnancy; Female; Child, Preschool; Adult; Surrogate Mothers; Men; Counseling; Europe; Fathers
PubMed: 37528054
DOI: 10.1093/humrep/dead152