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International Journal of Environmental... Sep 2019Among the array of structurally and toxicologically diverse mycotoxins, aflatoxins have attracted the most interest of scientific research due to their high toxicity and...
Among the array of structurally and toxicologically diverse mycotoxins, aflatoxins have attracted the most interest of scientific research due to their high toxicity and incidence in foods and feeds. Despite the undeniable progress made in various aspects related to aflatoxins, the ultimate goal consisting of reducing the associated public health risks worldwide is far from being reached due to multiplicity of social, political, economic, geographic, climatic, and development factors. However, a reasonable degree of health protection is attained in industrialized countries owing to their scientific, administrative, and financial capacities allowing them to use high-tech agricultural management systems. Less fortunate situations exist in equatorial and sub-equatorial developing countries mainly practicing traditional agriculture managed by smallholders for subsistence, and where the climate is suitable for mould growth and aflatoxin production. This situation worsens due to climatic change producing conditions increasingly suitable for aflatoxigenic mould growth and toxin production. Accordingly, it is difficult to harmonize the regulatory standards of aflatoxins worldwide, which prevents agri-foods of developing countries from accessing the markets of industrialized countries. To tackle the multi-faceted aflatoxin problem, actions should be taken collectively by the international community involving scientific research, technological and social development, environment protection, awareness promotion, etc. International cooperation should foster technology transfer and exchange of pertinent technical information. This review presents the main historical discoveries leading to our present knowledge on aflatoxins and the challenges that should be addressed presently and in the future at various levels to ensure higher health protection for everybody. In short, it aims to elucidate where we come from and where we should go in terms of aflatoxin research/development.
Topics: Aflatoxins; Agriculture; Biomedical Research; Climate Change; Developing Countries; Food Microbiology; Global Health; Health Policy; History, 17th Century; History, 19th Century; History, 20th Century; History, Ancient; Humans; Mycotoxicosis; Poisons; Prospective Studies; Public Health; Retrospective Studies
PubMed: 31569703
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16193633 -
Toxins Aug 2021Analysis of body fluids and tissues of aflatoxin exposed individuals for the presence of aflatoxins and aflatoxin metabolites has emerged as a reliable indicator of...
Analysis of body fluids and tissues of aflatoxin exposed individuals for the presence of aflatoxins and aflatoxin metabolites has emerged as a reliable indicator of exposure and metabolism of aflatoxins. However, current aflatoxin biomarkers are not appropriate for investigating the long-term effects of aflatoxin exposure. In this explorative study, we investigated the analysis of hair as a complementary or alternative matrix for the assessment of biomarkers of long-term aflatoxin exposure. Three groups of guinea pigs were orally dosed with 5 ugkgbw, 50 ugkgbw, and 100 ugkgbw of AFB1. Urine and hair samples were collected on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 7, 30, 60, and 90 and analysed for AFB1 and AFM1 using UHPLC-MS/MS. AFB1 and AFM1 were detected in 75% and 13.6%, respectively, of the day 1 to day 7 urine samples. AFB1 was detected in hair samples collected from day 3 up to day 60. This is the first report to confirm the deposition of AFB1 in the hair of experimental animals. These findings indicate that hair analysis has the potential to provide an accurate long-term historical record of aflatoxin exposure with potentially important implications for the field of aflatoxin biomarkers.
Topics: Aflatoxins; Animals; Biomarkers; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Environmental Monitoring; Guinea Pigs; Hair; Models, Animal; South Africa; Time Factors
PubMed: 34437441
DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080570 -
Toxins Dec 2022Aflatoxins (AFs) are the most important toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic fungal toxins that routinely contaminate food and feed. While more than 20 AFs have been... (Review)
Review
Aflatoxins (AFs) are the most important toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic fungal toxins that routinely contaminate food and feed. While more than 20 AFs have been identified to date, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2), and M1 (AFM1) are the most common. Over 25 species of have been shown to produce AFs, with , , and being the most important and well-known AF-producing fungi. These ubiquitous molds can propagate on agricultural commodities to produce AFs in fields and during harvesting, processing, transportation, and storage. Countries with warmer climates and that produce foods susceptible to AF contamination shoulder a substantial portion of the global AF burden. Pakistan's warm climate promotes the growth of toxigenic fungi, resulting in frequent AF contamination of human foods and animal feeds. The potential for contamination in Pakistan is exacerbated by improper storage conditions and a lack of regulatory limits and enforcement mechanisms. High levels of AFs in common commodities produced in Pakistan are a major food safety problem, posing serious health risks to the population. Furthermore, aflatoxin contamination contributes to economic losses by limiting exports of these commodities. In this review, recent information regarding the fungal producers of AFs, prevalence of AF contamination of foods and feed, current regulations, and AF prevention and removal strategies are summarized, with a major focus on Pakistan.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Aflatoxins; Pakistan; Food Contamination; Aspergillus flavus; Aflatoxin B1; Food Security
PubMed: 36548742
DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120845 -
Journal of Food Protection Jan 2021Almonds rejected as inedible are often used for production of almond oil. However, low-quality almonds are frequently contaminated with aflatoxins, and little is known...
ABSTRACT
Almonds rejected as inedible are often used for production of almond oil. However, low-quality almonds are frequently contaminated with aflatoxins, and little is known regarding transfer of aflatoxins to almond oil during processing. In this study, oil was produced from reject almonds by hexane extraction. Of 19 almond samples that were naturally contaminated with aflatoxins, 17 oil samples contained measurable amounts of aflatoxins, and aflatoxin content of contaminated oil was correlated with aflatoxin content of the nuts. However, oil aflatoxin levels were not correlated with the oxidation level of the oil as measured by percent free fatty acids and peroxide value. Adsorbents used in oil refining were tested for their ability to remove aflatoxins from contaminated oil. Fuller's earth and bentonite were the most effective, removing 96 and 86% of total aflatoxins from contaminated oil samples, respectively. Treatment with diatomaceous earth, in contrast, had no effect on aflatoxin levels in oil. These results show that oil refining steps using mineral clay adsorbents may also function to remove aflatoxins from contaminated oil.
Topics: Aflatoxins; Nuts; Plant Oils; Prunus dulcis
PubMed: 32882027
DOI: 10.4315/JFP-20-229 -
Journal of Food Protection Jun 2020Flax seed has become an increasingly popular food ingredient because of its nutrient richness as well as potential health benefits. Flax seeds are often ground before...
ABSTRACT
Flax seed has become an increasingly popular food ingredient because of its nutrient richness as well as potential health benefits. Flax seeds are often ground before consumption, and flax seed cakes are used as animal feed. Aflatoxin production may occur subsequently when the ground seeds are stored in an environment that supports fungal growth. The objectives of this study were to determine the growth of two toxigenic fungi, Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, and to quantify the concentrations of four major aflatoxins (AFB1, AFG1, AGB2, and AFG2) produced by the two fungi on ground flax seeds with water activities (aws) of 0.82, 0.86, 0.90, 0.94, and 0.98, incubated for 30 days at 20, 27, and 35°C. Results of the study showed that A. flavus was able to grow on ground seeds with aw from 0.86 to 0.98 at all three temperatures, and the most rapid growth occurred at aws 0.90 and 0.94 at 27°C. In comparison, A. parasiticus grew on seeds with aw from 0.86 to 0.98 at 27 and 35°C as well as on seeds with aw from 0.86 to 0.90 at 20°C, and the most favorable growth condition was aw from 0.90 to 0.94 at 35°C. A. flavus produced aflatoxins on seeds with aw from 0.90 to 0.94 at 27°C as well as on seeds with aw from 0.86 to 0.98 at 35°C, and the maximum total aflatoxin (298 μg/kg), AFB1 (247 μg/kg), and AFG1 (51 μg/kg) were found on seeds with aw 0.90 at 35°C. In comparison, A. parasiticus produced aflatoxins under a wider range of conditions, which included aw 0.86 at 27 and 35°C, aw 0.90 at 20 and 27°C, aw 0.94 at 27°C, and aw 0.98 at 35°C. The maximum total aflatoxin (364 μg/kg) and maximum AFB1 (324 μg/kg) along with 34 μg/kg AFG1 and 6 μg/kg AFB2 were produced by A. parasiticus on seeds with aw 0.98 incubated at 35°C for 30 days. Linear regression models also indicated that high incubation temperature (35°C) was optimal for overall fungal growth and for formation of high levels of aflatoxin by both fungi. Future studies should also address aflatoxin contamination in flax seed oil.
Topics: Aflatoxin B1; Aflatoxins; Animals; Aspergillus; Aspergillus flavus; Flax; Seeds
PubMed: 32034398
DOI: 10.4315/JFP-19-539 -
BioMed Research International 2022. Poultry feed contamination due to mycotoxins is one of the major threats to the growing poultry industry. Surveillance of different mycotoxins, including aflatoxin, is...
. Poultry feed contamination due to mycotoxins is one of the major threats to the growing poultry industry. Surveillance of different mycotoxins, including aflatoxin, is very important to control economic and health hazards associated with these toxins. Studies reporting aflatoxin levels in poultry feed are limited. Therefore, this study was conducted to examine the occurrence of total aflatoxin in poultry feed. This study is the first-ever documentation about the frequency and quantitative estimations of total aflatoxin levels in poultry feed consumed to provide solid feedback to the poultry industrialists and researchers involved in studying the mycotoxins. . Contamination of poultry feed with mycotoxins such as aflatoxin is a major concern for the poultry industry that results in a significant economic loss and directly affects consumers. Monitoring the aflatoxin levels in poultry feed is crucial for controlling economic loss and decreasing the health hazards to the population. This study was conducted to examine the occurrence of total aflatoxin in poultry feed in a high consumption area. Three different poultry feeds, i.e., starter, grower, and finisher, were assessed through continuous sampling from farms. The incidence of positive samples for aflatoxin contamination was 92.5%. Grower feed had the highest frequency (100%) of aflatoxin positive samples and aflatoxin levels with a mean value of 56.34 ppb. Further, the range of moisture content was around 6.8%-10.98%. No significant correlation between humidity and aflatoxin contamination was revealed when analyzed by Pearson's correlation coefficient with of 0.05 and value of 0.13. The results warrant the need for constant monitoring programs for the prevention of aflatoxin contamination in local poultry farms.
Topics: Aflatoxins; Animal Feed; Animals; Food Contamination; Pakistan; Poultry
PubMed: 35141333
DOI: 10.1155/2022/5397561 -
Toxins Feb 2023Aflatoxin B (AFB) exhibits the most potent mutagenic and carcinogenic activity among aflatoxins. For this reason, AFB is recognized as a human group 1 carcinogen by the... (Review)
Review
Aflatoxin B (AFB) exhibits the most potent mutagenic and carcinogenic activity among aflatoxins. For this reason, AFB is recognized as a human group 1 carcinogen by the International Agency of Research on Cancer. Consequently, it is essential to determine its properties and behavior in different chemical systems. The chemical properties of AFB can be explored using computational chemistry, which has been employed complementarily to experimental investigations. The present review includes in silico studies (semiempirical, Hartree-Fock, DFT, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics) conducted from the first computational study in 1974 to the present (2022). This work was performed, considering the following groups: (a) molecular properties of AFB (structural, energy, solvent effects, ground and the excited state, atomic charges, among others); (b) theoretical investigations of AFB (degradation, quantification, reactivity, among others); (c) molecular interactions with inorganic compounds (Ag, Zn, and Mg); (d) molecular interactions with environmentally compounds (clays); and (e) molecular interactions with biological compounds (DNA, enzymes, cyclodextrins, glucans, among others). Accordingly, in this work, we provide to the stakeholder the knowledge of toxicity of types of AFB-derivatives, the structure-activity relationships manifested by the bonds between AFB and DNA or proteins, and the types of strategies that have been employed to quantify, detect, and eliminate the AFB molecule.
Topics: Humans; Aflatoxin B1; Molecular Docking Simulation; Aflatoxins; Structure-Activity Relationship; Carcinogens; DNA
PubMed: 36828449
DOI: 10.3390/toxins15020135 -
Toxins Jun 2023Crop contamination by aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), an produced toxin, is frequently observed in tropical and subtropical regions. This phenomenon is emerging in Europe, most...
Crop contamination by aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), an produced toxin, is frequently observed in tropical and subtropical regions. This phenomenon is emerging in Europe, most likely as a result of climate change. Alternative methods, such as biocontrol agents (BCAs), are currently being developed to reduce the use of chemicals in the prevention of mycotoxin contamination. Actinobacteria are known to produce many bioactive compounds, and some of them can reduce in vitro AFB1 concentration. In this context, the present study aims to analyze the effect of a cell-free supernatant (CFS) from culture on the development of , as well as on its transcriptome profile using microarray assay and its impact on AFB1 concentration. Results demonstrated that in vitro, the CFS reduced the dry weight and conidiation of from 77% and 43%, respectively, and was therefore associated with a reduction in AFB1 concentration reduction to levels under the limit of quantification. The transcriptomic data analysis revealed that 5198 genes were differentially expressed in response to the CFS exposure and among them 5169 were downregulated including most of the genes involved in biosynthetic gene clusters. The aflatoxins' gene cluster was the most downregulated. Other gene clusters, such as the aspergillic acid, aspirochlorine, and ustiloxin B gene clusters, were also downregulated and associated with a variation in their concentration, confirmed by LC-HRMS.
Topics: Aspergillus flavus; Aflatoxin B1; Transcriptome; Aflatoxins
PubMed: 37505697
DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070428 -
Toxins Sep 2023In this study, aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) were analyzed in grains, specifically wheat and corn, from Albania. To summarize, 71 wheat and 45 corn samples...
In this study, aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) were analyzed in grains, specifically wheat and corn, from Albania. To summarize, 71 wheat and 45 corn samples from different growing areas were collected. The multi-toxin analytical procedure involved sample extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The incidence of AF was 18% in the analyzed wheat and 71% in the corn samples. The concentration of AFs was much higher in the corn samples than in the wheat samples. The maximum permitted levels for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and total AFs were not exceeded in the wheat samples, while they were exceeded in 36% of the corn samples. In the wheat samples, the AFB1 concentration varied between 0.2 and 0.4 µg kg. However, the highest concentrations in the corn samples were 2057, 2944, and 3550 µg kg. OTA was present in only three corn samples and one wheat sample. However, all contaminated samples exceeded the maximum permitted levels. This report reveals the presence of AFs and OTA in grain commodities, specifically wheat and corn, grown in Albania.
Topics: Aflatoxins; Zea mays; Triticum; Chromatography, Liquid; Albania; Incidence; Food Contamination; Tandem Mass Spectrometry; Ochratoxins; Aflatoxin B1; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid
PubMed: 37755993
DOI: 10.3390/toxins15090567 -
International Journal of Molecular... Mar 2024Aflatoxins are harmful natural contaminants found in foods and are known to be hepatotoxic. However, recent studies have linked chronic consumption of aflatoxins to... (Review)
Review
Aflatoxins are harmful natural contaminants found in foods and are known to be hepatotoxic. However, recent studies have linked chronic consumption of aflatoxins to nephrotoxicity in both animals and humans. Here, we conducted a systematic review of active compounds, crude extracts, herbal formulations, and probiotics against aflatoxin-induced renal dysfunction, highlighting their mechanisms of action in both in vitro and in vivo studies. The natural products and dietary supplements discussed in this study alleviated aflatoxin-induced renal oxidative stress, inflammation, tissue damage, and markers of renal function, mostly in animal models. Therefore, the information provided in this review may improve the management of kidney disease associated with aflatoxin exposure and potentially aid in animal feed supplementation. However, future research is warranted to translate the outcomes of this study into clinical use in kidney patients.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Aflatoxins; Aflatoxin B1; Biological Products; Dietary Supplements; Kidney Diseases
PubMed: 38474096
DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052849