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Journal of the American College of... Apr 2019Skipping breakfast is common among U.S. adults. Limited evidence suggests that skipping breakfast is associated with atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. (Comparative Study)
Comparative Study
BACKGROUND
Skipping breakfast is common among U.S. adults. Limited evidence suggests that skipping breakfast is associated with atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease.
OBJECTIVES
The authors sought to examine the association of skipping breakfast with cardiovascular and all-cause mortality.
METHODS
This is a prospective cohort study of a nationally representative sample of 6,550 adults 40 to 75 years of age who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III 1988 to 1994. Frequency of breakfast eating was reported during an in-house interview. Death and underlying causes of death were ascertained by linkage to death records through December 31, 2011. The associations between breakfast consumption frequency and cardiovascular and all-cause mortality were investigated by using weighted Cox proportional hazards regression models.
RESULTS
Among the 6,550 participants (mean age 53.2 years; 48.0% male) in this study, 5.1% never consumed breakfast, 10.9% rarely consumed breakfast, 25.0% consumed breakfast some days, and 59.0% consumed breakfast every day. During 112,148 person-years of follow-up, 2,318 deaths occurred including 619 deaths from cardiovascular disease. After adjustment for age, sex, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, dietary and lifestyle factors, body mass index, and cardiovascular risk factors, participants who never consumed breakfast compared with those consuming breakfast everyday had hazard ratios of 1.87 (95% confidence interval: 1.14 to 3.04) for cardiovascular mortality and 1.19 (95% confidence interval: 0.99 to 1.42) for all-cause mortality.
CONCLUSIONS
In a nationally representative cohort with 17 to 23 years of follow-up, skipping breakfast was associated with a significantly increased risk of mortality from cardiovascular disease. Our study supports the benefits of eating breakfast in promoting cardiovascular health.
Topics: Adult; Age Factors; Aged; Breakfast; Cardiovascular Diseases; Cause of Death; Cohort Studies; Ethnicity; Feeding Behavior; Female; Healthy Lifestyle; Humans; Logistic Models; Male; Middle Aged; Proportional Hazards Models; Prospective Studies; Risk Assessment; Sex Factors; Surveys and Questionnaires; Survival Analysis; United States
PubMed: 31023424
DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2019.01.065 -
Diabetes, Obesity & Metabolism Feb 2021To evaluate the effect of oral semaglutide on energy intake and appetite in subjects with type 2 diabetes (T2D). (Randomized Controlled Trial)
Randomized Controlled Trial
AIM
To evaluate the effect of oral semaglutide on energy intake and appetite in subjects with type 2 diabetes (T2D).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, two-period cross-over trial, 15 subjects with T2D received 12 weeks of treatment with once-daily oral semaglutide (4-week dose escalation from 3 to 7 to 14 mg) followed by placebo, or vice versa. Energy intake was measured during an ad libitum lunch, evening meal and snack box after a standard breakfast. Appetite ratings were measured using a visual analogue scale after standard and fat-rich breakfasts. Other assessments included eating and craving control (using the Control of Eating Questionnaire), and changes in body weight and composition.
RESULTS
Following a standard breakfast, total daily ad libitum energy intake was significantly lower (38.9%) with oral semaglutide versus placebo in 13 evaluable subjects (estimated treatment difference, -5096.0 kJ; 95% CI -7000.0, -3192.1; P = .0001). After a fat-rich breakfast, there were significant differences in favour of oral semaglutide versus placebo for measures of satiety, hunger and for overall appetite score, with no significant differences following a standard breakfast. Fewer food cravings and better eating control were seen with oral semaglutide versus placebo. Overall, mean body weight decreased by 2.7 kg with oral semaglutide and 0.1 kg with placebo, mostly attributable to body fat mass loss.
CONCLUSION
After 12 weeks of treatment, ad libitum energy intake was lower with oral semaglutide versus placebo, resulting in reduced body fat mass, and was associated with increased satiety and fullness after a fat-rich breakfast, and improved eating control.
TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER
NCT02773381.
Topics: Appetite; Body Weight; Breakfast; Cross-Over Studies; Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2; Eating; Energy Intake; Food Preferences; Glucagon-Like Peptides; Humans
PubMed: 33184979
DOI: 10.1111/dom.14255 -
International Journal of Obesity (2005) Apr 2013There is emerging literature demonstrating a relationship between the timing of feeding and weight regulation in animals. However, whether the timing of food intake...
BACKGROUND
There is emerging literature demonstrating a relationship between the timing of feeding and weight regulation in animals. However, whether the timing of food intake influences the success of a weight-loss diet in humans is unknown.
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate the role of food timing in weight-loss effectiveness in a sample of 420 individuals who followed a 20-week weight-loss treatment.
METHODS
Participants (49.5% female subjects; age (mean ± s.d.): 42 ± 11 years; BMI: 31.4 ± 5.4 kg m(-2)) were grouped in early eaters and late eaters, according to the timing of the main meal (lunch in this Mediterranean population). 51% of the subjects were early eaters and 49% were late eaters (lunch time before and after 1500 hours, respectively), energy intake and expenditure, appetite hormones, CLOCK genotype, sleep duration and chronotype were studied.
RESULTS
Late lunch eaters lost less weight and displayed a slower weight-loss rate during the 20 weeks of treatment than early eaters (P=0.002). Surprisingly, energy intake, dietary composition, estimated energy expenditure, appetite hormones and sleep duration was similar between both groups. Nevertheless, late eaters were more evening types, had less energetic breakfasts and skipped breakfast more frequently that early eaters (all; P<0.05). CLOCK rs4580704 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) associated with the timing of the main meal (P=0.015) with a higher frequency of minor allele (C) carriers among the late eaters (P=0.041). Neither sleep duration, nor CLOCK SNPs or morning/evening chronotype was independently associated with weight loss (all; P>0.05).
CONCLUSIONS
Eating late may influence the success of weight-loss therapy. Novel therapeutic strategies should incorporate not only the caloric intake and macronutrient distribution - as is classically done - but also the timing of food.
Topics: Adult; Body Mass Index; CLOCK Proteins; Circadian Rhythm; Diet, Mediterranean; Energy Intake; Energy Metabolism; Feeding Behavior; Female; Genotype; Ghrelin; Humans; Leptin; Male; Obesity; Predictive Value of Tests; Sleep; Spain; Surveys and Questionnaires; Time Factors; Treatment Outcome; Weight Loss; Weight Reduction Programs
PubMed: 23357955
DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2012.229 -
Nutrients May 2021Postprandial hyperglycemia (PPHG) is strongly linked with the future development of cardiovascular complications in type 2 diabetes (T2D). Hence, reducing postprandial... (Review)
Review
Postprandial hyperglycemia (PPHG) is strongly linked with the future development of cardiovascular complications in type 2 diabetes (T2D). Hence, reducing postprandial glycemic excursions is essential in T2D treatment to slow progressive deficiency of β-cell function and prevent cardiovascular complications. Most of the metabolic processes involved in PPHG, i.e., β-cell secretory function, GLP-1 secretion, insulin sensitivity, muscular glucose uptake, and hepatic glucose production, are controlled by the circadian clock and display daily oscillation. Consequently, postprandial glycemia displays diurnal variation with a higher glycemic response after meals with the same carbohydrate content, consumed at dusk compared to the morning. T2D and meal timing schedule not synchronized with the circadian clock (i.e., skipping breakfast) are associated with disrupted clock gene expression and is linked to PPHG. In contrast, greater intake in the morning (i.e., high energy breakfast) than in the evening has a resetting effect on clock gene oscillations and beneficial effects on weight loss, appetite, and reduction of PPHG, independently of total energy intake. Therefore, resetting clock gene expression through a diet intervention consisting of meal timing aligned to the circadian clock, i.e., shifting most calories and carbohydrates to the early hours of the day, is a promising therapeutic approach to improve PPHG in T2D. This review will focus on recent studies, showing how a high-energy breakfast diet (Bdiet) has resetting and synchronizing actions on circadian clock genes expression, improving glucose metabolism, postprandial glycemic excursions along with weight loss in T2D.
Topics: Appetite; Blood Glucose; Breakfast; Circadian Clocks; Circadian Rhythm Signaling Peptides and Proteins; Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2; Diet, Diabetic; Energy Intake; Feeding Behavior; Humans; Hyperglycemia; Meals; Postprandial Period; Time Factors; Weight Loss
PubMed: 34063109
DOI: 10.3390/nu13051558 -
The Journal of Nutrition Jul 2020Although daily protein intake (PI) has been reported to be essential for regulating muscle mass, the distribution of daily PI in individuals is typically the lowest at... (Randomized Controlled Trial)
Randomized Controlled Trial
BACKGROUND
Although daily protein intake (PI) has been reported to be essential for regulating muscle mass, the distribution of daily PI in individuals is typically the lowest at breakfast and skewed toward dinner. Skewed protein intake patterns and inadequate PI at breakfast were reported to be negative factors for muscle maintenance.
OBJECTIVES
This study examined whether a protein-enriched meal at breakfast is more effective for muscle accretion compared with the typical skewed PI pattern.
METHODS
This 12-wk, parallel-group, randomized clinical trial included 26 men (means ± SEs; age: 20.8 ± 0.4 y; BMI: 21.8 ± 0.4 kg/m2). The "high breakfast" (HBR) group (n = 12) consumed a protein-enriched meal at breakfast providing a PI of 0.33 g/kg body weight (BW); their PI at lunch (0.46 g/kg BW) and dinner (0.48 g/kg BW) provided an adequate overall daily PI (1.30 g/kg BW/d). The "low breakfast" (LBR) group (n = 14) consumed 0.12 g protein/kg BW at breakfast; intakes at lunch (0.45 g/kg BW) and dinner (0.83 g/kg BW) yielded the same daily PI as in the HBR group. The participants performed supervised resistance training (RT) 3 times per week (75-80% 1-repetition maximum; 3 sets × 10 repetitions). DXA was used to measure the primary outcome variable, that is, total lean soft tissue mass (LTM).
RESULTS
The total LTM at baseline did not differ between the HBR (52.4 ± 1.3 kg) and LBR (53.4 ± 1.2 kg) groups. After the intervention, increases in total LTM were significant in both groups, with that in the HBR group (2.5 ± 0.3 kg) tending to be greater than that in the LBR group (1.8 ± 0.3 kg) (P = 0.06), with a large effect size (Cohen d = 0.795).
CONCLUSIONS
For RT-induced muscle hypertrophy in healthy young men, consuming a protein-enriched meal at breakfast and less protein at dinner while achieving an adequate overall PI is more effective than consuming more protein at dinner.This study was registered at University hospital Medical Information Network (UMIN) Clinical Trials Registry as UMIN000037583 (https://upload.umin.ac.jp/cgi-open-bin/ctr_e/ctr_view.cgi?recptno=R000042763).
Topics: Adolescent; Adult; Dietary Proteins; Humans; Male; Meals; Muscle, Skeletal; Resistance Training; Young Adult
PubMed: 32321161
DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxaa101 -
Nutrients Dec 2022This study aimed to examine the effect of high protein breakfast diet with or without lunch on the postprandial glucose level during the day. A randomized, crossover... (Randomized Controlled Trial)
Randomized Controlled Trial
This study aimed to examine the effect of high protein breakfast diet with or without lunch on the postprandial glucose level during the day. A randomized, crossover design that recruited 12 healthy young participants (three men and nine women) was performed and four trials (normal breakfast + skipped lunch, high protein breakfast + skipped lunch, normal breakfast + lunch, and high protein breakfast + lunch) were conducted in two weeks. During each trial, breakfast, lunch, and dinner on the trial day, and dinner before the trial day, were provided as test meals, and the meal timing was fixed. Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) was used to assess the blood glucose level during the whole experiment. Incremental area under the curve (iAUC) of the postprandial glucose level was calculated. The results suggested that compared with normal breakfast, high protein breakfast suppressed the 3 h iAUC of postprandial glucose level after breakfast (p < 0.05 or p < 0.0001) and 1.5 h iAUC after lunch (p < 0.01). During lunch, high protein breakfast diet suppressed the dinner and overall day postprandial glucose level (p < 0.05 vs. normal breakfast), but no significant difference was observed when skipping lunch. Our findings indicate that high protein breakfast could suppress the breakfast postprandial glucose level, as well as following lunch and dinner, but this effect on dinner was attenuated when skipping lunch.
Topics: Adult; Female; Humans; Male; Blood Glucose; Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring; Breakfast; Cross-Over Studies; Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2; Diet, High-Protein; Hyperglycemia; Lunch; Meals; Postprandial Period; Double-Blind Method
PubMed: 36615743
DOI: 10.3390/nu15010085 -
Advances in Nutrition (Bethesda, Md.) May 2016Extensive literature has addressed the acute cognitive effects of breaking a fast. Recent reviews in this line of work have synthesized available research on the... (Review)
Review
Extensive literature has addressed the acute cognitive effects of breaking a fast. Recent reviews in this line of work have synthesized available research on the cognitive consequences of fasting compared with nutrient intake and the cognitive effects of macronutrient consumption. These largely have been inconclusive, possibly in part because of selection criteria limiting the scope of studies covered. The purpose of the current review is to integrate the results of the literature examining the cognitive effects of breakfast and breakfast composition in adults with the use of a flexible definition of breakfast, specifically, any caloric intake after a fasting period of ≥8 h. This review includes 38 studies that examine the acute cognitive impact of breakfast and 16 studies that examine the effects of breakfast composition. Results suggest that healthy adults show a small but robust advantage for memory (particularly delayed recall) from consuming breakfast. Largely equivocal results emerge for attention and motor and executive function; there were no effects from breakfast on language. Regarding breakfast composition, a smaller number of studies and widely disparate methodology addressing this question preclude definitive conclusions about the effects of cognition. A subset of this literature examines these questions in the context of glucoregulation; the findings emphasize the importance of considering differences in glucoregulation in research designs, even among healthy cohorts. The limitations of this literature include methodologic differences, such as the use of different tests to measure cognitive constructs, as well as the effects of timing in test administration.
Topics: Adult; Attention; Blood Glucose; Breakfast; Cognition; Diet; Executive Function; Humans; Language; Memory; Psychomotor Performance; Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic
PubMed: 27184286
DOI: 10.3945/an.115.010231 -
Journal of the American Board of Family... 2021Recent studies suggest that intermittent fasting or skipping breakfast may be good strategies for weight loss and better health. The objective of this study was to...
BACKGROUND
Recent studies suggest that intermittent fasting or skipping breakfast may be good strategies for weight loss and better health. The objective of this study was to determine whether regular breakfast is associated with overall or cardiovascular mortality.
METHODS
Cohort study with follow-up mortality data from the NHANES 1999-2002. National weighted sample. Outcomes were overall and cardiovascular mortality; secondary was fiber intake.
RESULTS
Out of 5761 participants, there were 4778 (82.9%) identified as breakfast eaters and 2027 deaths (35.2%); 469 (23.1%) deaths were due to cardiovascular diseases. The average daily intake of calories was 2015, and fiber was 16.3 g/day. A total of 17.7%, 66.0%, and 11.4% of participants had diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases, respectively. Analysis showed breakfast eaters were older, had lower body mass index, and ate more calories and fiber daily than non-breakfast eaters. Cox proportional hazard regression analyses showed that compared to non-breakfast eaters, the breakfast eaters were less likely to experience mortality after multivariable adjustments (overall mortality: hazard ratio [HR], 0.69; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.57-0.84 and cardiovascular mortality: HR, 0.45; 95% CI, 0.32-0.63). For the breakfast eaters, fiber intake >25 g/day was associated with 21% (HR, 0.79; 95% CI, 0.66-0.96) reduction in all-cause mortality after multivariable adjustments.
CONCLUSIONS
Regular daily intake of breakfast appears to be associated with lower overall and cardiovascular mortality, particularly when consuming fiber >25 g/day. Further studies examining specific breakfast foods and the timing of foods would be helpful.
Topics: Breakfast; Cohort Studies; Humans; Nutrition Surveys
PubMed: 34312261
DOI: 10.3122/jabfm.2021.04.210044 -
Medicine and Science in Sports and... Apr 2021This study investigated the effect of carbohydrate supplementation on substrate oxidation during exercise in hypoxia after preexercise breakfast consumption and omission.
PURPOSE
This study investigated the effect of carbohydrate supplementation on substrate oxidation during exercise in hypoxia after preexercise breakfast consumption and omission.
METHODS
Eleven men walked in normobaric hypoxia (FiO2 ~11.7%) for 90 min at 50% of hypoxic V˙O2max. Participants were supplemented with a carbohydrate beverage (1.2 g·min-1 glucose) and a placebo beverage (both enriched with U-13C6 D-glucose) after breakfast consumption and after omission. Indirect calorimetry and isotope ratio mass spectrometry were used to calculate carbohydrate (exogenous and endogenous [muscle and liver]) and fat oxidation.
RESULTS
In the first 60 min of exercise, there was no significant change in relative substrate oxidation in the carbohydrate compared with placebo trial after breakfast consumption or omission (both P = 0.99). In the last 30 min of exercise, increased relative carbohydrate oxidation occurred in the carbohydrate compared with placebo trial after breakfast omission (44.0 ± 8.8 vs 28.0 ± 12.3, P < 0.01) but not consumption (51.7 ± 12.3 vs 44.2 ± 10.4, P = 0.38). In the same period, a reduction in relative liver (but not muscle) glucose oxidation was observed in the carbohydrate compared with placebo trials after breakfast consumption (liver, 7.7% ± 1.6% vs 14.8% ± 2.3%, P < 0.01; muscle, 25.4% ± 9.4% vs 29.4% ± 11.1%, P = 0.99) and omission (liver, 3.8% ± 0.8% vs 8.7% ± 2.8%, P < 0.01; muscle, 19.4% ± 7.5% vs 19.2% ± 12.2%, P = 0.99). No significant difference in relative exogenous carbohydrate oxidation was observed between breakfast consumption and omission trials (P = 0.14).
CONCLUSION
In acute normobaric hypoxia, carbohydrate supplementation increased relative carbohydrate oxidation during exercise (>60 min) after breakfast omission, but not consumption.
Topics: Blood Glucose; Breakfast; Breath Tests; Calorimetry, Indirect; Dietary Carbohydrates; Dietary Supplements; Energy Metabolism; Fatty Acids, Nonesterified; Glycogen; Heart Rate; Humans; Hypoxia; Lactic Acid; Lipid Metabolism; Liver; Male; Mass Spectrometry; Muscle, Skeletal; Oxidation-Reduction; Placebos; Time Factors; Walking; Young Adult
PubMed: 33044437
DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002536 -
Nutrients Aug 2022(1) Background: Dietary intake may have a remarkable effect on sleep because skipping breakfast and having a late dinner affects many sleep parameters. Breakfast is the...
(1) Background: Dietary intake may have a remarkable effect on sleep because skipping breakfast and having a late dinner affects many sleep parameters. Breakfast is the most important meal of the day for children and adults to maintain morning chronotype. We examine whether breakfast style is associated with nutrient intake and sleep factors. (2) Methods: This cross-sectional analysis, with a large sample size of 2671 (766 men and 1805 women aged 20-60 years after data brush-up), was based on data obtained from an online survey. Correlation analysis was performed using Spearman's rank correlation test. The Kruskal-Wallis's test followed by post hoc Dunn's multiple comparison test was used to evaluate the interaction between sleep factors and breakfast categories. Multiple regression analyses were performed to identify variables associated with multiple confounding factors. Dietary data were analyzed using approximately one-month average dietary records from the application. The basic characteristics of the participants (age, sex, and BMI) and other lifestyle-related factors (sleep and physical activity) were obtained accordingly. Sleep parameters including the timing of weekday sleep onset, weekday wake-up, weekend (free day) sleep onset, weekend wake-up, sleep, and midpoints of sleep phase were calculated for each participant. We categorized participants' breakfast types into five groups: (1) Japanese meal, where breakfast may contain Japanese ingredients such as rice; (2) Western meal, where breakfast may contain bread; (3) alternating eating patterns of Japanese and Western meals; (4) cereals and supplements, where breakfast may contain cereals or supplements and energy bars; and (5) skipped breakfast (no breakfast). (3) Results: The midpoint values of the sleep phase on weekends adjusted for sleep debt on work days (MSFsc) related to chronotype were higher in women, suggesting that they may prefer eveningness. Participants with obesity, young age, and low physical activity preferred eveningness with longer sleep durations. Intake of Japanese-style breakfast was significantly associated with early wake-up time on both weekdays and weekends. Cereal-style breakfast intake was significantly associated with late wake-up on both weekdays and weekends. Intake of macronutrients such as protein, fat, carbohydrate, and sodium at breakfast time was positively and strongly associated with the intake of Japanese breakfast, whereas macronutrients were negatively associated with the intake of cereal breakfast. Among micronutrients, vitamin K was positively correlated with Japanese breakfast and negatively correlated with cereal breakfast; (4) Conclusions: Japanese-style breakfast is associated not only with morning preference but also with high intake of macro- and micronutrients.
Topics: Adult; Breakfast; Child; Circadian Rhythm; Cross-Sectional Studies; Energy Intake; Feeding Behavior; Female; Humans; Japan; Male; Micronutrients; Sleep
PubMed: 36079754
DOI: 10.3390/nu14173496