Review

Authors: Panagiotis I Georgianos, Rajiv Agarwal

Hypertension is very common and remains often poorly controlled in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Accurate blood pressure (BP) measurement is the essential first step in the diagnosis and management of hypertension. Dietary sodium restriction is often overlooked, but can improve BP control, especially among patients treated with an agent to block the renin-angiotensin system. In the presence of very high albuminuria, international guidelines consistently and strongly recommend the use of an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or an angiotensin receptor blocker as the antihypertensive agent of first choice. Long-acting dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers and diuretics are reasonable second- and third-line therapeutic options. For patients with treatment-resistant hypertension, guidelines recommend the addition of spironolactone to the baseline antihypertensive regimen. However, the associated risk of hyperkalemia restricts the broad utilization of spironolactone in patients with moderate-to-advanced CKD. Evidence from the CLICK (Chlorthalidone in Chronic Kidney Disease) trial indicates that the thiazide-like diuretic chlorthalidone is effective and serves as an alternative therapeutic opportunity for patients with stage 4 CKD and uncontrolled hypertension, including those with treatment-resistant hypertension. Chlorthalidone can also mitigate the risk of hyperkalemia to enable the concomitant use of spironolactone, but this combination requires careful monitoring of BP and kidney function for the prevention of adverse events. Emerging agents, such as the non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist ocedurenone, dual endothelin receptor antagonist aprocitentan and the aldosterone synthase inhibitor baxdrostat offer novel targets and strategies to control BP better. Larger and longer term clinical trials are needed to demonstrate the safety and efficacy of these novel therapies in the future. In this article, we review the current standards of treatment and discuss novel developments in pathophysiology, diagnosis, outcome prediction and management of hypertension in patients with CKD.

Topics: Humans; Spironolactone; Hyperkalemia; Chlorthalidone; Hypertension; Antihypertensive Agents; Mineralocorticoid Receptor Antagonists; Renal Insufficiency, Chronic; Blood Pressure

PubMed: 37355779
DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfad118

Review

Authors: Dustin K Smith, Robert P Lennon, Peter B Carlsgaard...

More than 70% of adults treated for primary hypertension will eventually require at least two antihypertensive agents, either initially as combination therapy or as add-on therapy if monotherapy and lifestyle modifications do not achieve adequate blood pressure control. Four main classes of medications are used in combination therapy for the treatment of hypertension: thiazide diuretics, calcium channel blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs), and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs). ACEIs and ARBs should not be used simultaneously. In black patients, at least one agent should be a thiazide diuretic or a calcium channel blocker. Patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction should be treated initially with a beta blocker and an ACEI or ARB (or an angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor), followed by add-on therapy with a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist and a diuretic based on volume status. Treatment for patients with chronic kidney disease and proteinuria should include an ACEI or ARB plus a thiazide diuretic or a calcium channel blocker. Patients with diabetes mellitus should be treated similarly to those without diabetes unless proteinuria is present, in which case combination therapy should include an ACEI or ARB.

Topics: Adrenergic beta-Antagonists; Angiotensin Receptor Antagonists; Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors; Antihypertensive Agents; Blood Pressure; Calcium Channel Blockers; Drug Therapy, Combination; Humans; Hypertension

PubMed: 32163253
DOI: No ID Found

Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Management of High Blood Pressure in Adults: Synopsis of the 2017 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Hypertension Guideline.

Authors: Robert M Carey, Paul K Whelton, ...

DESCRIPTION

In November 2017, the American College of Cardiology (ACC) and the American Heart Association (AHA) released a clinical practice guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure (BP) in adults. This article summarizes the major recommendations.

METHODS

In 2014, the ACC and the AHA appointed a multidisciplinary committee to update previous reports of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. The committee reviewed literature and commissioned systematic reviews and meta-analyses on out-of-office BP monitoring, the optimal target for BP lowering, the comparative benefits and harms of different classes of antihypertensive agents, and the comparative benefits and harms of initiating therapy with a single antihypertensive agent or a combination of 2 agents.

RECOMMENDATIONS

This article summarizes key recommendations in the following areas: BP classification, BP measurement, screening for secondary hypertension, nonpharmacologic therapy, BP thresholds and cardiac risk estimation to guide drug treatment, treatment goals (general and for patients with diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, and advanced age), choice of initial drug therapy, resistant hypertension, and strategies to improve hypertension control.

Topics: Adult; Antihypertensive Agents; Blood Pressure Determination; Comorbidity; Humans; Hypertension; Mass Screening; Secondary Prevention

PubMed: 29357392
DOI: 10.7326/M17-3203

Authors: Mitchell A Psotka, Hector Ventura

Topics: Antihypertensive Agents; Friends; Heart Failure; Humans; Hypertension; Kidney

PubMed: 33309577
DOI: 10.1016/j.jchf.2020.10.007

Randomized Controlled Trial

Authors: Shams Aldin Shamsi, Mahsa Salehzadeh, Haleh Ghavami...

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to determine the impact of applying lifestyle intervention in the form of a continuous care model (CCM) on reducing dietary sodium intake and blood pressure (BP) in patients with hypertension.

METHODS

This randomized controlled trial was conducted in a 2-group design on a total of 50 patients who were hypertensive (experimental and control) as a pre‒post test study. A healthy lifestyle (emphasizing physical activity and heart-healthy diet) in the form of CCM, which considers the patient as an active agent in the health process, was conducted in the experimental group over a period of 4 months. The mean BP value and dietary sodium intake in both groups were measured at the beginning and the end of the study.

RESULTS

The mean sodium intake, the mean systolic BP, and the mean diastolic BP decreased to 2.42±0.73 mm Hg (from 3.12±0.79), 128.4±13.04 mm Hg (from 144.20±13.12), and 79.4±8.93 mm Hg (from 89±9.12), respectively, after the intervention in the experimental group (p=0.021, p<0.001, and p=0.011, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Applying lifestyle intervention in the form of CCM may be recommended to reduce dietary sodium intake and mean systolic and diastolic BP in patients who are hypertensive. Considering the fact that lifestyle modifications are quite important regardless of the use of antihypertensive drugs, lifestyle intervention in the form of CCM is recommended to improve patient's adherence to dietary restrictions and consequently, treatment outcomes in patients who are hypertensive.

Topics: Adult; Aged; Antihypertensive Agents; Blood Pressure; Diet, Sodium-Restricted; Exercise; Female; Humans; Hypertension; Life Style; Male; Middle Aged

PubMed: 33709920
DOI: 10.5543/tkda.2021.81669

Authors: Giulia Nardoianni, Barbara Pala, Alessandra Scoccia...

Resistant hypertension (RHT) is characterized by persistently high blood pressure (BP) levels above the widely recommended therapeutic targets of less than 140/90 mmHg office BP, despite life-style measures and optimal medical therapies, including at least three antihypertensive drug classes at maximum tolerated dose (one should be a diuretic). This condition is strongly related to hypertension-mediated organ damage and, mostly, high risk of hospitalization due to hypertension emergencies or acute cardiovascular events. Hypertension guidelines proposed a triple combination therapy based on renin angiotensin system blocking agent, a thiazide or thiazide-like diuretic, and a dihydropyridinic calcium-channel blocker, to almost all patients with RHT, who should also receive either a beta-blocker or a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist, or both, depending on concomitant conditions and contraindications. Several other drugs may be attempted, when elevated BP levels persist in these RHT patients, although their added efficacy in lowering BP levels on top of optimal medical therapy is uncertain. Also, renal denervation has demonstrated to be a valid therapeutic alternative in RHT patients. More recently, novel drug classes and molecules have been tested in phase 2 randomised controlled clinical trials in patients with RHT on top of optimal medical therapy with at least 2-3 antihypertensive drugs. These novel drugs, which are orally administered and are able to antagonize different pathophysiological pathways, are represented by non-steroid mineralocorticorticoid receptor antagonists, selective aldosterone synthase inhibitors, and dual endothelin receptor antagonists, all of which have proven to reduce seated office and 24-h ambulatory systolic/diastolic BP levels. The main findings of randomized clinical trials performed with these drugs  as well as their potential indications for the clinical management of RHT patients are summarised in this systematic review article.

Topics: Humans; Antihypertensive Agents; Blood Pressure; Drug Resistance; Drug Therapy, Combination; Hypertension; Precision Medicine; Treatment Outcome

PubMed: 38616212
DOI: 10.1007/s40292-024-00634-4

Review

Authors: Dimitris P Papadopoulos, Iordanis Mourouzis, Costas Thomopoulos...

Hypertensive crises (76% urgencies, 24% emergencies) represented more than one fourth of all medical urgencies/emergencies. Hypertensive urgencies frequently present with headache (22%), epistaxis (17%), faintness, and psychomotor agitation (10%) and hypertensive emergencies frequently present with chest pain (27%), dyspnea (22%) and neurological deficit (21%). Types of end-organ damage associated with hypertensive emergencies include cerebral infarction (24%), acute pulmonary edema (23%) and hypertensive encephalopathy (16%), as well as cerebral hemorrhage (4.5%). The most important factor that limits morbidity and mortality from these disorders is prompt and carefully considered therapy. Unfortunately, hypertensive emergencies and urgencies are among the most misunderstood and mismanaged of acute medical problems seen today. The primary goal of intervention in a hypertensive crisis is to safely reduce BP. Immediate reduction in BP is required only in patients with acute end-organ damage (i.e. hypertensive emergency). This requires treatment with a titratable short-acting intravenous (IV) antihypertensive agent, while severe hypertension with no acute end-organ damage is usually treated with oral antihypertensive agents. Patients with hypertensive emergencies are best treated in an intensive care unit (ICU) with titratable IV hypotensive agents. The aim of this review is to summarize the details regarding the definition-impact, causes, clinical condition and management of hypertensive crises.

Topics: Antihypertensive Agents; Blood Pressure; Critical Illness; Humans; Hypertension

PubMed: 20504242
DOI: 10.3109/08037051.2010.488052

Authors: Mimi Stokke Opdal, Stine Rognstad, Frode Edvardsen...

Topics: Humans; Antihypertensive Agents; Hypertension

PubMed: 39149754
DOI: 10.4045/tidsskr.24.0407

Review

Authors: Spoorthy Kulkarni, Danny Jenkins, Arko Dhar...

Orthostatic hypotension is a prevalent clinical condition, caused by heterogenous etiologies and associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Management is particularly challenging in patients with uncontrolled hypertension. A thorough assessment is needed to draw an appropriate management plan. The treatment aims to improve postural symptoms while minimizing side effects and reducing iatrogenic exacerbation of supine hypertension. A personalized management plan including rationalizing medications, patient education, identification, and avoidance of triggers, as well as nonpharmacological therapies such as compression devices, dietary modifications, and postural aids, make the first steps. Among pharmacological therapies, midodrine and fludrocortisone are the most prescribed and best studied; pyridostigmine, atomoxetine, and droxidopa are considered next. Yohimbine remains an investigational agent. A multidisciplinary team may be required in some patients with multiple comorbidities and polypharmacy. However, there is a lack of robust efficacy and safety evidence for all therapies. Building robust real-world and stratified clinical trials based on underlying pathophysiology may pave the way for further drug development and better clinical strategies and in this challenging unmet medical need.

Topics: Humans; Hypotension, Orthostatic; Treatment Outcome; Blood Pressure; Risk Factors; Posture; Antihypertensive Agents

PubMed: 39027973
DOI: 10.1097/FJC.0000000000001597

Authors: Kate Wiles, Mellisa Damodaram, Charlotte Frise...

Severe hypertension in pregnancy is defined as a sustained systolic blood pressure of 160 mmHg or over or diastolic blood pressure of 110 mmHg or over and should be assessed in hospital. Severe hypertension before 20 weeks' gestation is rare and usually due to chronic hypertension; assessment for target organ damage and exclusion of secondary hypertension are warranted. The most common cause of severe hypertension in pregnancy is pre-eclampsia, which presents after 20 weeks' gestation. This warrants more rapid control of blood pressure due to the risk of haemorrhagic stroke, and intravenous antihypertensive agents may be required. Treatment is determined by licensing, availability and clinician experience, with no high-level evidence to guide prescribing. Labetalol is the agent most commonly used, both orally and intravenously, in pregnancy in the UK. Severe hypertension is a risk factor for sustained hypertension after pregnancy. Hypertension in pregnancy is associated with increased cardiovascular risk.

Topics: Antihypertensive Agents; Blood Pressure; Female; Humans; Hypertension; Labetalol; Pre-Eclampsia; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Complications, Cardiovascular

PubMed: 34507929
DOI: 10.7861/clinmed.2021-0508