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Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) Jan 2020l-Carnitine is an amino acid derivative widely known for its involvement in the transport of long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondrial matrix, where fatty acid... (Review)
Review
l-Carnitine is an amino acid derivative widely known for its involvement in the transport of long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondrial matrix, where fatty acid oxidation occurs. Moreover, l-Carnitine protects the cell from acyl-CoA accretion through the generation of acylcarnitines. Circulating carnitine is mainly supplied by animal-based food products and to a lesser extent by endogenous biosynthesis in the liver and kidney. Human muscle contains high amounts of carnitine but it depends on the uptake of this compound from the bloodstream, due to muscle inability to synthesize carnitine. Mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation represents an important energy source for muscle metabolism particularly during physical exercise. However, especially during high-intensity exercise, this process seems to be limited by the mitochondrial availability of free l-carnitine. Hence, fatty acid oxidation rapidly declines, increasing exercise intensity from moderate to high. Considering the important role of fatty acids in muscle bioenergetics, and the limiting effect of free carnitine in fatty acid oxidation during endurance exercise, l-carnitine supplementation has been hypothesized to improve exercise performance. So far, the question of the role of l-carnitine supplementation on muscle performance has not definitively been clarified. Differences in exercise intensity, training or conditioning of the subjects, amount of l-carnitine administered, route and timing of administration relative to the exercise led to different experimental results. In this review, we will describe the role of l-carnitine in muscle energetics and the main causes that led to conflicting data on the use of l-carnitine as a supplement.
Topics: Carnitine; Carnitine O-Palmitoyltransferase; Dietary Supplements; Energy Metabolism; Exercise; Fatty Acids; Humans; Methylamines; Mitochondria; Muscle, Skeletal; Oxidation-Reduction
PubMed: 31906370
DOI: 10.3390/molecules25010182 -
Neurochemical Research Jun 2017L-Carnitine functions to transport long chain fatty acyl-CoAs into the mitochondria for degradation by β-oxidation. Treatment with L-carnitine can ameliorate metabolic... (Review)
Review
L-Carnitine functions to transport long chain fatty acyl-CoAs into the mitochondria for degradation by β-oxidation. Treatment with L-carnitine can ameliorate metabolic imbalances in many inborn errors of metabolism. In recent years there has been considerable interest in the therapeutic potential of L-carnitine and its acetylated derivative acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) for neuroprotection in a number of disorders including hypoxia-ischemia, traumatic brain injury, Alzheimer's disease and in conditions leading to central or peripheral nervous system injury. There is compelling evidence from preclinical studies that L-carnitine and ALCAR can improve energy status, decrease oxidative stress and prevent subsequent cell death in models of adult, neonatal and pediatric brain injury. ALCAR can provide an acetyl moiety that can be oxidized for energy, used as a precursor for acetylcholine, or incorporated into glutamate, glutamine and GABA, or into lipids for myelination and cell growth. Administration of ALCAR after brain injury in rat pups improved long-term functional outcomes, including memory. Additional studies are needed to better explore the potential of L-carnitine and ALCAR for protection of developing brain as there is an urgent need for therapies that can improve outcome after neonatal and pediatric brain injury.
Topics: Acetylcarnitine; Animals; Brain; Brain Injuries; Carnitine; Humans; Neuroprotection; Oxidative Stress
PubMed: 28508995
DOI: 10.1007/s11064-017-2288-7 -
Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta Oct 2016Carnitine is essential for the transfer of long-chain fatty acids across the inner mitochondrial membrane for subsequent β-oxidation. It can be synthesized by the body... (Review)
Review
Carnitine is essential for the transfer of long-chain fatty acids across the inner mitochondrial membrane for subsequent β-oxidation. It can be synthesized by the body or assumed with the diet from meat and dairy products. Defects in carnitine biosynthesis do not routinely result in low plasma carnitine levels. Carnitine is accumulated by the cells and retained by kidneys using OCTN2, a high affinity organic cation transporter specific for carnitine. Defects in the OCTN2 carnitine transporter results in autosomal recessive primary carnitine deficiency characterized by decreased intracellular carnitine accumulation, increased losses of carnitine in the urine, and low serum carnitine levels. Patients can present early in life with hypoketotic hypoglycemia and hepatic encephalopathy, or later in life with skeletal and cardiac myopathy or sudden death from cardiac arrhythmia, usually triggered by fasting or catabolic state. This disease responds to oral carnitine that, in pharmacological doses, enters cells using the amino acid transporter B(0,+). Primary carnitine deficiency can be suspected from the clinical presentation or identified by low levels of free carnitine (C0) in the newborn screening. Some adult patients have been diagnosed following the birth of an unaffected child with very low carnitine levels in the newborn screening. The diagnosis is confirmed by measuring low carnitine uptake in the patients' fibroblasts or by DNA sequencing of the SLC22A5 gene encoding the OCTN2 carnitine transporter. Some mutations are specific for certain ethnic backgrounds, but the majority are private and identified only in individual families. Although the genotype usually does not correlate with metabolic or cardiac involvement in primary carnitine deficiency, patients presenting as adults tend to have at least one missense mutation retaining residual activity. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Mitochondrial Channels edited by Pierre Sonveaux, Pierre Maechler and Jean-Claude Martinou.
Topics: Adult; Age of Onset; Biological Transport; Carnitine; Caveolins; Energy Metabolism; Fasting; Fatty Acid Transport Proteins; Fatty Acid-Binding Proteins; Fatty Acids; Humans; Infant, Newborn; Kidney; Mutation; Neonatal Screening; Organ Specificity; Organic Cation Transport Proteins; Oxidation-Reduction; Solute Carrier Family 22 Member 5
PubMed: 26828774
DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2016.01.023 -
Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) Sep 2019Carnitine plays essential roles in intermediary metabolism. In non-vegetarians, most of carnitine sources (~75%) are obtained from diet whereas endogenous synthesis... (Review)
Review
Carnitine plays essential roles in intermediary metabolism. In non-vegetarians, most of carnitine sources (~75%) are obtained from diet whereas endogenous synthesis accounts for around 25%. Renal carnitine reabsorption along with dietary intake and endogenous production maintain carnitine homeostasis. The precursors for carnitine biosynthesis are lysine and methionine. The biosynthetic pathway involves four enzymes: 6--trimethyllysine dioxygenase (TMLD), 3-hydroxy-6--trimethyllysine aldolase (HTMLA), 4--trimethylaminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (TMABADH), and γ-butyrobetaine dioxygenase (BBD). OCTN2 (organic cation/carnitine transporter novel type 2) transports carnitine into the cells. One of the major functions of carnitine is shuttling long-chain fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane from the cytosol into the mitochondrial matrix for β-oxidation. This transport is achieved by mitochondrial carnitine-acylcarnitine cycle, which consists of three enzymes: carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT I), carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase (CACT), and carnitine palmitoyltransferase II (CPT II). Carnitine inborn errors of metabolism could result from defects in carnitine biosynthesis, carnitine transport, or mitochondrial carnitine-acylcarnitine cycle. The presentation of these disorders is variable but common findings include hypoketotic hypoglycemia, cardio(myopathy), and liver disease. In this review, the metabolism and homeostasis of carnitine are discussed. Then we present details of different inborn errors of carnitine metabolism, including clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment options. At the end, we discuss some of the causes of secondary carnitine deficiency.
Topics: Aldehyde Oxidoreductases; Cardiomyopathies; Carnitine; Carnitine Acyltransferases; Carnitine O-Palmitoyltransferase; Humans; Hyperammonemia; Metabolism, Inborn Errors; Mitochondria; Mixed Function Oxygenases; Muscular Diseases; Oxidation-Reduction; Solute Carrier Family 22 Member 5; gamma-Butyrobetaine Dioxygenase
PubMed: 31500110
DOI: 10.3390/molecules24183251 -
Theranostics 2021High-throughput metabolite profiling provides the opportunity to reveal metabolic mechanisms and identify biomarkers. Psoriasis is an immune-mediated chronic...
High-throughput metabolite profiling provides the opportunity to reveal metabolic mechanisms and identify biomarkers. Psoriasis is an immune-mediated chronic inflammatory disease. However, the role of metabolism in psoriasis pathogenesis remains unclear. Plasma samples of individuals (45 psoriasis and 45 sex-, age-, and BMI-matched healthy controls) were collected. Non-targeted metabolomics and amino acid- or carnitine-targeted metabolomics were conducted, then, plasma samples of mice induced by imiquimod (IMQ) were subjected to the amino acid- and carnitine-targeted metabolomic profiling. Flow cytometry was used to study the effect of L-carnitine (LC(C0)) on IMQ-induced psoriatic inflammation. Through the non-targeted metabolomics approach, we detected significantly altered amino acids and carnitines in psoriasis patients. Amino acid-targeted metabolomic profiling identified 37 amino acids altered in psoriasis, of these 23 were markedly upregulated, including essential amino acids (EAAs), and branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), whereas glutamine, cysteine, and asparagine were significantly down-regulated. Carnitine-targeted metabolomic profiling identified 40 significantly altered carnitines, 14 of which included palmitoylcarnitine (C16) and were markedly downregulated in psoriasis, whereas hexanoylcarnitine (C6) and 3-OH-octadecenoylcarnitine (C18:1-OH) were significantly upregulated. Interestingly, glutamine, asparagine, and C16 levels were negatively correlated with the PASI score. Moreover, a higher abundance of LC(C0) was associated with markedly reduced IMQ-induced epidermal thickening and infiltration of Th17 cells in skin lesions, indicating LC(C0) supplementation as a potential therapy for psoriasis treatment. Our results suggested the metabolism of amino acids and carnitines are significantly altered in psoriasis, especially the metabolism of EAAs, BCAAs, and LC(C0), which may play key roles in the pathogenesis of psoriasis.
Topics: Adult; Amino Acids; Animals; Biomarkers; Carnitine; Case-Control Studies; Disease Models, Animal; Female; Humans; Male; Metabolome; Mice; Mice, Inbred BALB C; Psoriasis
PubMed: 33391503
DOI: 10.7150/thno.51154 -
The Journal of Physiology Feb 2011We have previously shown that insulin increases muscle total carnitine (TC) content during acute i.v. l-carnitine infusion. Here we determined the effects of chronic... (Comparative Study)
Comparative Study Randomized Controlled Trial
We have previously shown that insulin increases muscle total carnitine (TC) content during acute i.v. l-carnitine infusion. Here we determined the effects of chronic l-carnitine and carbohydrate (CHO; to elevate serum insulin) ingestion on muscle TC content and exercise metabolism and performance in humans. On three visits, each separated by 12 weeks, 14 healthy male volunteers (age 25.9 ± 2.1 years, BMI 23.0 ± 0.8 kg m−2) performed an exercise test comprising 30 min cycling at 50% , 30 min at 80% , then a 30 min work output performance trial. Muscle biopsies were obtained at rest and after exercise at 50% and 80% on each occasion. Following visit one, volunteers ingested either 80 g of CHO (Control) or 2 g of l-carnitine-l-tartrate and 80 g of CHO (Carnitine) twice daily for 24 weeks in a randomised, double blind manner. All significant effects reported occurred after 24 weeks. Muscle TC increased from basal by 21% in Carnitine (P < 0.05), and was unchanged in Control. At 50% , the Carnitine group utilised 55% less muscle glycogen compared to Control (P < 0.05) and 31% less pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) activation compared to before supplementation (P < 0.05). Conversely, at 80% , muscle PDC activation was 38% higher (P < 0.05), acetylcarnitine content showed a trend to be 16% greater (P < 0.10), muscle lactate content was 44% lower (P < 0.05) and the muscle PCr/ATP ratio was better maintained (P < 0.05) in Carnitine compared to Control. The Carnitine group increased work output 11% from baseline in the performance trial, while Control showed no change. This is the first demonstration that human muscle TC can be increased by dietary means and results in muscle glycogen sparing during low intensity exercise (consistent with an increase in lipid utilisation) and a better matching of glycolytic, PDC and mitochondrial flux during high intensity exercise, thereby reducing muscle anaerobic ATP production. Furthermore, these changes were associated with an improvement in exercise performance.
Topics: Administration, Oral; Adult; Carnitine; Dietary Carbohydrates; Double-Blind Method; Energy Metabolism; Exercise; Exercise Test; Humans; Male; Muscle, Skeletal; Oxygen Consumption; Sports; Time Factors; Young Adult
PubMed: 21224234
DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2010.201343 -
Nutrients Dec 2021l-Carnitine (l-C) and any of its forms (glycine-propionyl l-Carnitine (GPL-C) or l-Carnitine l-tartrate (l-CLT)) has been frequently recommended as a supplement to...
l-Carnitine (l-C) and any of its forms (glycine-propionyl l-Carnitine (GPL-C) or l-Carnitine l-tartrate (l-CLT)) has been frequently recommended as a supplement to improve sports performance due to, among others, its role in fat metabolism and in maintaining the mitochondrial acetyl-CoA/CoA ratio. The main aim of the present systematic review was to determine the effects of oral l-C supplementation on moderate- (50-79% V˙O) and high-intensity (≥80% V˙O) exercise performance and to show the effective doses and ideal timing of its intake. A structured search was performed according to the PRISMA statement and the PICOS guidelines in the Web of Science (WOS) and Scopus databases, including selected data obtained up to 24 October 2021. The search included studies where l-C or glycine-propionyl l-Carnitine (GPL-C) supplementation was compared with a placebo in an identical situation and tested its effects on high and/or low-moderate performance. The trials that used the supplementation of l-C together with additional supplements were eliminated. There were no applied filters on physical fitness level, race, or age of the participants. The methodological quality of studies was evaluated by the McMaster Critical Review Form. Of the 220 articles obtained, 11 were finally included in this systematic review. Six studies used l-C, while three studies used l-CLT, and two others combined the molecule propionyl l-Carnitine (PL-C) with GPL-C. Five studies analyzed chronic supplementation (4-24 weeks) and six studies used an acute administration (<7 days). The administration doses in this chronic supplementation varied from 1 to 3 g/day; in acute supplementation, oral l-C supplementation doses ranged from 3 to 4 g. On the one hand, the effects of oral l-C supplementation on high-intensity exercise performance variables were analyzed in nine studies. Four of them measured the effects of chronic supplementation (lower rating of perceived exertion (RPE) after 30 min at 80% V˙O on cycle ergometer and higher work capacity in "all-out" tests, peak power in a Wingate test, and the number of repetitions and volume lifted in leg press exercises), and five studies analyzed the effects of acute supplementation (lower RPE after graded exercise test on the treadmill until exhaustion and higher peak and average power in the Wingate cycle ergometer test). On the other hand, the effects of l-C supplementation on moderate exercise performance variables were observed in six studies. Out of those, three measured the effect of an acute supplementation, and three described the effect of a chronic supplementation, but no significant improvements on performance were found. In summary, l-C supplementation with 3 to 4 g ingested between 60 and 90 min before testing or 2 to 2.72 g/day for 9 to 24 weeks improved high-intensity exercise performance. However, chronic or acute l-C or GPL-C supplementation did not present improvements on moderate exercise performance.
Topics: Administration, Oral; Athletic Performance; Carnitine; Dietary Supplements; Exercise; Female; Humans; Male; Sports Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Time Factors
PubMed: 34959912
DOI: 10.3390/nu13124359 -
International Journal of Molecular... Dec 2022Several common ocular diseases are leading causes of irreversible visual impairment. Over the last decade, various mainly untargeted metabolic studies have been... (Review)
Review
Several common ocular diseases are leading causes of irreversible visual impairment. Over the last decade, various mainly untargeted metabolic studies have been performed to show that metabolic dysfunction plays an important role in the pathogenesis of ocular diseases. A number of metabolites in plasma/serum, aqueous or vitreous humor, or in tears have been found to differ between patients and controls; among them are L-carnitine and acylcarnitines, which are essential for mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation. The metabolic profile of carnitines regarding a variety of diseases has attracted researchers' interest. In this review, we present and discuss recent advances that have been made in the identification of carnitines as potential metabolic biomarkers in common ocular diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, retinopathy of prematurity, central retinal vein occlusion, primary open-angle glaucoma, rhegmatogenous retinal detachment, and dry eye syndrome.
Topics: Infant, Newborn; Humans; Ophthalmology; Glaucoma, Open-Angle; Carnitine; Vitreous Body; Biomarkers
PubMed: 36555822
DOI: 10.3390/ijms232416183 -
Pediatrics and Neonatology Dec 2020Free carnitine (C0) and short chain acylcarnitine (SCA) blood concentrations play a significant role in fatty acid oxidation process during the first days of life. The...
BACKGROUND
Free carnitine (C0) and short chain acylcarnitine (SCA) blood concentrations play a significant role in fatty acid oxidation process during the first days of life. The aim of this study was to demonstrate C0 and SCA concentrations in Dried Blood Spots (DBS) of full term breastfed infants in relation to their birth weight (BW) perinatally.
METHODS
Breastfed full term infants (n = 12,000, 6000 males, 6000 females) with BW 2000-4000 g were divided into 4 equal groups: Group A, 2000-2500 g, B 2500-3000 g, C 3000-3500 g and D 3500-4000 g. Blood samples in the form of DBS were collected on the 3rd day of life and analyzed via a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) protocol.
RESULTS
BW-related C0 and SCAs were found as follows: C0 was determined to be statistically significantly higher in group A (BW 2000-2500 g) in both males and females. Lower acetylcarnitine (C2) and hydroxybutyrylcarnitine (C4OH) blood concentrations were detected in group A of both sexes, whereas butyrylcarnitine (C4) concentrations were found to be lower in the same group of males only. Furthermore, high concentrations of C2 and C4OH were shown in group D (BW 3500-4000 g) in both sexes. SCA sum of means ± SD values in males and females of group A were statistically significantly lower as compared to other study groups.
CONCLUSION
Due to the number of the samples, data from this study could be applied as neonatal screening reference values for full term breastfed newborns in relation to their birth weight.
Topics: Biomarkers; Birth Weight; Breast Feeding; Carnitine; Chromatography, Liquid; Fatty Acids; Female; Humans; Infant; Infant, Newborn; Male; Neonatal Screening; Reference Values; Tandem Mass Spectrometry
PubMed: 32771364
DOI: 10.1016/j.pedneo.2020.07.015 -
Arquivos Brasileiros de Oftalmologia 2020The aim of the present study was to measure the free carnitine and acylcarnitine levels in pterygium tissue and normal conjunctival tissue at the metabolomics level...
PURPOSE
The aim of the present study was to measure the free carnitine and acylcarnitine levels in pterygium tissue and normal conjunctival tissue at the metabolomics level using tandem mass spectrometry.
METHODS
In this prospective, clinical randomized study, pterygium tissues and normal conjunctival tissues taken during pterygium excision with autograft were compared regarding their free carnitine and acylcarnitine profiles. After tissue homogenization, carnitine levels were measured using tandem mass spectrometry. The data were statistically analyzed with the Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
RESULTS
Pterygium and normal conjunctival tissue samples from a single eye of 29 patients (16 females, 13 males; mean age, 54.75 ± 11.25 years [range, 21-78 years]) were evaluated. While the free carnitine (C0) level was significantly high in the pterygium tissue (p<0.001), acylcarnitine levels were significantly high in some esterized derivatives (C2, C5, C5:1, C5DC, C16:1, C18, methylglutarylcarnitine) (p<0.05). No statistically significant difference was determined for the other esterized derivatives (p>0.05).
CONCLUSION
That the carnitine levels in pterygium tissue were higher suggests that acceleration of cell metabolism developed secondary to chronic inflammation and the premalignant characteristics of pterygium tissue. High carnitine levels may also effectively suppress the apoptosis process. The data reported in our study indicate that further, more extensive studies of the carnitine profile could help clarify the pathogenesis of pterygium.
Topics: Adult; Aged; Carnitine; Conjunctiva; Female; Humans; Male; Metabolomics; Middle Aged; Prospective Studies; Pterygium; Tandem Mass Spectrometry; Young Adult
PubMed: 31531547
DOI: 10.5935/0004-2749.20200001