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Yeungnam University Journal of Medicine May 2019Forefoot disorders are often seen in clinical practice. Forefoot deformity and pain can deteriorate gait function and decrease quality of life. This review presents... (Review)
Review
Forefoot disorders are often seen in clinical practice. Forefoot deformity and pain can deteriorate gait function and decrease quality of life. This review presents common forefoot disorders and conservative treatment using an insole or orthosis. Metatarsalgia is a painful foot condition affecting the metatarsal (MT) region of the foot. A MT pad, MT bar, or forefoot cushion can be used to alleviate MT pain. Hallux valgus is a deformity characterized by medial deviation of the first MT and lateral deviation of the hallux. A toe spreader, valgus splint, and bunion shield are commonly applied to patients with hallux valgus. Hallux limitus and hallux rigidus refer to painful limitations of dorsiflexion of the first metatarsophalangeal joint. A kinetic wedge foot orthosis or rocker sole can help relieve symptoms from hallux limitus or rigidus. Hammer, claw, and mallet toes are sagittal plane deformities of the lesser toes. Toe sleeve or padding can be applied over high-pressure areas in the proximal or distal interphalangeal joints or under the MT heads. An MT off-loading insole can also be used to alleviate symptoms following lesser toe deformities. Morton's neuroma is a benign neuroma of an intermetatarsal plantar nerve that leads to a painful condition affecting the MT area. The MT bar, the plantar pad, or a more cushioned insole would be useful. In addition, patients with any of the above various forefoot disorders should avoid tight-fitting or high-heeled shoes. Applying an insole or orthosis and wearing proper shoes can be beneficial for managing forefoot disorders.
PubMed: 31620619
DOI: 10.12701/yujm.2019.00185 -
Orthopaedics & Traumatology, Surgery &... Feb 2023Lesser-toe deformity is frequent and varied, with severe functional impact. In elderly subjects, it leads to loss of autonomy and increases the risk of falls. The aim of... (Review)
Review
Lesser-toe deformity is frequent and varied, with severe functional impact. In elderly subjects, it leads to loss of autonomy and increases the risk of falls. The aim of the present study was to provide an update on management, addressing 5 questions. What are the normal anatomy and pathophysiology? These acquired deformities mainly result from imbalance between the intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of the foot or from capsule-ligament stabilizer failure. How to analyze the deformity? It is important to identify the cause, site, reducibility and metatarsophalangeal joint stability. What are the main deformities and how should they be classified? Classifications used to be based on confusing terminology as the deformities were poorly defined. The French Foot Surgery Association (AFCP) therefore validated a classification with standardized, exhaustive and reproducible morphologic descriptions. What treatments are there? Treatment needs to take account of the cause. Footwear adaptation, physiotherapy and podologic measures are in first line, with surgery in second line. Surgery concerns soft tissues (tendon lengthening, tendon transfer, arthrolysis, plantar plate repair), bone (metatarsal and phalangeal osteotomy) and joints (replacement and fusion), with percutaneous and open approaches. What are the treatment strategies? Surgery is performed sequentially, from proximal to distal, if necessary. Options are set out in the decision-trees included in this article. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: V, expert opinion.
Topics: Humans; Aged; Foot Deformities; Metatarsophalangeal Joint; Toes; Foot; Tendon Transfer
PubMed: 36942795
DOI: 10.1016/j.otsr.2022.103464 -
California and Western Medicine Aug 1936
PubMed: 18743770
DOI: No ID Found -
EFORT Open Reviews Nov 2016Deformities of the lesser toes are common and can be associated with significant morbidity. These deformities are often multiple, and numerous treatment strategies have... (Review)
Review
Deformities of the lesser toes are common and can be associated with significant morbidity. These deformities are often multiple, and numerous treatment strategies have been described in the literature.The goal of surgical treatment is to improve symptoms by restoring alignment and function, and avoiding recurrence. In order to achieve this, it is essential for the treating surgeon to understand the normal anatomy and pathology of the various deformities.There is a paucity of prospective studies and randomised-controlled trials assessing the efficacy of specific interventions.We describe the normal anatomy and biomechanics of the lesser toes, and the pathology of commonly adult deformities. The rationale behind various treatment strategies is discussed and the results of published literature presented. Algorithms for the management of lesser toe deformities based on current literature are proposed. Cite this article: Malhotra K, Davda K, Singh D. The pathology and management of lesser toe deformities. 2016;1:409-419. DOI: 10.1302/2058-5241.1.160017.
PubMed: 28461920
DOI: 10.1302/2058-5241.1.160017 -
Zhongguo Xiu Fu Chong Jian Wai Ke Za... Sep 2020To review the research progress of interphalangeal arthrodesis in the treatment of interphalangeal joint deformity. (Review)
Review
OBJECTIVE
To review the research progress of interphalangeal arthrodesis in the treatment of interphalangeal joint deformity.
METHODS
The literature about interphalangeal arthrodesis at home and abroad was extensively consulted, and the indications, fusion methods, fixation methods, complications, and so on were summarized and analysed.
RESULTS
The indications of interphalangeal arthrodesis are hammer toe, claw toe, and mallet toe. From the different forms of fusion surface, fusion methods include end-to-end, peg-in-hole, conical reamer type, and V-shape arthrodesis. There are three kinds of fixation methods: Kirschner wire fixation, stainless-steel wire suture fixation, and intramedullary fixation, and there are many kinds of intramedullary fixation. The complications of interphalangeal arthrodesis include vascular injury, fixation related complications, and postoperative complications.
CONCLUSION
Interphalangeal arthrodesis is a good way to correct some deformities of toes, but the incidence of various complications can not be ignored, and there is still a lack of clinical research on interphalangeal arthrodesis.
Topics: Arthrodesis; Bone Wires; Hammer Toe Syndrome; Humans; Toe Joint; Toes
PubMed: 32929916
DOI: 10.7507/1002-1892.201910093 -
Postgraduate Medical Journal May 1931
PubMed: 21312658
DOI: 10.1136/pgmj.6.68.130 -
Foot (Edinburgh, Scotland) Sep 2009Measures of second-fourth metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ) angle (indicator of hammer toe deformity) and clinical measures of tibial torsion have limited evidence for...
BACKGROUND
Measures of second-fourth metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ) angle (indicator of hammer toe deformity) and clinical measures of tibial torsion have limited evidence for validity and reliability. The purposes of this study are to determine: (1) reliability of using a 3D digitizer (Metrecom) and computed tomography (CT) to measure MTPJ angle for toes 2-4; (2) reliability of goniometer, 3D digitizer, and CT to measure tibial torsion; (3) validity of MTPJ angle measures for toes 2-4 using goniometry and 3D digitizer compared to CT (gold standard) and (4) validity of tibial torsion measures using goniometry and 3D digitizer (Metrecom) compared to CT (gold standard).
METHODS
Twenty-nine subjects participated in this study. 27 feet with hammer toe deformity and 31 feet without hammer toe deformity were tested using standardized gonimetric, 3D digitizer and CT methods. ICCs (3,1), standard error of the measurement (SEM) values, and difference measures were used to characterize intrarater reliability. Pearson correlation coefficients and an analysis of variance were used to determine associations and differences between the measurement techniques.
FINDINGS
3D digitizer and CT measures of MTPJ angle had high test-retest reliability (ICC = 0.95-0.96 and 0.98-0.99, respectively; SEM = 2.64-3.35 degrees and 1.42-1.47 degrees, respectively). Goniometry, 3D digitizer, and CT measures of tibial torsion had good test-retest reliability (ICC = 0.75, 0.85, and 0.98, respectively; SEM = 2.15 degrees, 1.74 degrees, and 0.72 degree, respectively). Both goniometric and 3D digitizer measures of MTPJ angle were highly correlated with CT measures of MTPJ angle (r = 0.84-0.90, r = 0.84-0.88, respectively) and tibial torsion (r = 0.72, r = 0.83). Goniometry, 3D digitizer, and CT measures were all different from each other for measures of hammer toe deformity (p < 0.001). Goniometry measures were different from CT measures and 3D digitizer measures of tibial torsion (p < 0.002). CT measures and 3D digitizer measures of tibial torsion were similar (p = 0.112).
INTERPRETATIONS
These results suggest that 3D digitizer and CT scan measures of MTPJ angle and goniometric, 3D digitizer, and CT scan measures of tibial torsion are reliable. Goniometer and 3D digitizer measures of MTPJ angle and tibial torsion measures are highly correlated with the gold standard CT method indicating good validity of measures, but the measures are not interchangeable.
Topics: Adult; Arthrometry, Articular; Female; Hammer Toe Syndrome; Humans; Imaging, Three-Dimensional; Male; Metatarsophalangeal Joint; Range of Motion, Articular; Reproducibility of Results; Tibia; Tomography, X-Ray Computed; Torsion Abnormality; Young Adult
PubMed: 20161156
DOI: 10.1016/j.foot.2009.03.004 -
JBJS Essential Surgical Techniques 2023First described by Soule in 1910, arthrodesis of the proximal interphalangeal joint is a common operative method of treatment of hammer toe, or fixed-flexion deformity...
BACKGROUND
First described by Soule in 1910, arthrodesis of the proximal interphalangeal joint is a common operative method of treatment of hammer toe, or fixed-flexion deformity of the proximal interphalangeal joint of the lesser toes. The deformity is often caused by imbalance in intrinsic and extrinsic muscle function across the interphalangeal joint and metatarsophalangeal joint, which can be effectively addressed through proximal interphalangeal joint straightening and arthrodesis in conjunction with soft-tissue balancing of the metatarsophalangeal joint.
DESCRIPTION
Following longitudinal skin incision over the joint, a transverse extensor tenotomy and capsulotomy reveal the proximal interphalangeal joint and provide appropriate exposure of the head of the proximal phalanx. With the soft tissues protected, the proximal and middle phalanges undergo resection of the articular surfaces to allow osseous apposition. This step can be performed with a rongeur sagittal saw or with osteotomes. The head of the proximal phalanx is resected proximal to the head-neck junction, and the proximal portion of the middle phalanx is removed to expose the subchondral bone. Often, there is a dorsal contracture of the metatarsophalangeal joint that is elevating the toe, which is addressed with use of a longitudinal incision over the metatarsophalangeal joint, a Z-lengthening of the long extensor tendon to the toe, and a subsequent capsulectomy. If there is an angular component to the deformity, the collateral ligaments are released from the metatarsal neck, and the toe can be balanced. If there is residual subluxation of the joint that is incompletely corrected by soft-tissue procedures, a metatarsal osteotomy should be considered. Fixation is then performed with use of a smooth Kirschner wire. The wire is inserted from the middle phalanx out the tip of the toe and subsequently inserted retrograde across the proximal interphalangeal joint, often into the metatarsal head and neck, holding the metatarsophalangeal joint in appropriate position. This step can also be completed with use of novel methods including screws, bioabsorbable pins, or intramedullary implants.
ALTERNATIVES
Nonoperative treatments for hammer toe deformity are generally pursued prior to surgery and include shoe modifications such as a wide toe-box, soft uppers, and padding of osseous prominences. Alternative surgical treatments include proximal interphalangeal arthroplasty, soft-tissue capsulotomy, extensor tendon lengthening, and amputation.
RATIONALE
Although nonoperative treatment can alleviate symptoms temporarily, surgical treatment is often necessary for definitive treatment of hammer toe. Soft-tissue procedures such as tendon lengthening can provide a stabilizing benefit, but the degenerative bone changes associated with hammer toe are better addressed with use of resection of the proximal interphalangeal joint. Arthroplasty allows for some retained motion; however, this motion may lead to deformity and pain over time. Arthrodesis provides less painful and more reliable fixation as well as equal outcomes compared with other operative techniques. Patient satisfaction rates after this procedure are high, with pain relief in up to 92% of patients and rare complications.
EXPECTED OUTCOMES
Outcomes of this procedure are favorable, with rates of osseous fusion ranging from 83% to 98%. Patient satisfaction rates range from 83% to 100%. Historically, patients have expressed dissatisfaction with pain and the appearance of exposed hardware, but novel internal fixative devices provide a more natural appearance to the toe without the need for secondary surgical procedures for pin removal. Patients are often able to return to regular activity at 6 weeks postoperatively; however, there may be persistent pain or swelling in the toe. Wide shoes and activity modifications are frequently continued for several more weeks postoperatively, and some patients may benefit from formal physical therapy and at-home rehabilitation.
IMPORTANT TIPS
Avoid vascular compromise by ensuring adequate resection of bone at the proximal interphalangeal joint.A longitudinal incision across the joint provides greater exposure but can lead to scar contracture that elevates the toe. One alternative is the use of an elliptically shaped incision over the proximal interphalangeal joint, which can improve cosmesis but does restrict exposure.Excessive osseous resection can lead to a cosmetically undesirable short toe.If using an implant for the arthrodesis, ensure the implant is not too big for the toe. Most implants are too big for fifth-toe arthrodesis.In toes with severe deformity, fixation with a Kirschner wire is often preferred because excessive stretching of the neurovascular bundle can lead to toe compromise and if Kirschner wire is used the pin can easily be removed at bedside.For flexible deformities, a nonoperative approach is recommended, such as stretching exercises, shoe-wear modifications, and metatarsal pads. A tenotomy of the flexor digitorum brevis is a soft-tissue procedure that can be considered if nonoperative treatment is insufficient to correct the deformity. If flexor digitorum brevis tenotomy does not adequately treat proximal interphalangeal joint deformity, a proximal interphalangeal joint arthrodesis should be the next step.
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
MTP = metatarsophalangealPIP = proximal interphalangeal.
PubMed: 38274283
DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.ST.21.00046 -
Journal of Foot and Ankle Research 2016Diabetic toe ulcers are a potentially devastating complication of diabetes. In recent years, the percutaneous flexor tenotomy procedure for the correction of flexible... (Review)
Review
BACKGROUND
Diabetic toe ulcers are a potentially devastating complication of diabetes. In recent years, the percutaneous flexor tenotomy procedure for the correction of flexible claw and hammer-toe contraction deformities has been proposed as a safe and effective technique for facilitating the healing of toe-deformity related diabetic ulcers. The aim of this review is to critically appraise the evidence for the effectiveness of this surgical procedure in achieving ulcer healing, prevention of re-ulceration, and to summarise the rate of post-operative complications.
METHOD
A search of medical databases, was performed to locate relevant literature. Titles were screened prior to abstract and full text review to identify articles relevant to the research question. Search terms included truncations of "tenotomy", "toe", "hallux", "digit", "diabetes" and "ulcer". Peer reviewed primary research study designs specified as suitable for systematic reviews by the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination were included. Studies were excluded if they used a concurrent secondary procedure or included non-diabetic patients without reporting outcomes separately. Included studies were appraised for quality using the Methodological Index for Non-Randomised Studies tool. Levels of evidence were subsequently assigned to each outcome of interest (healing rate and prevention of re-ulceration).
RESULTS
From a total search yield of 42 articles, 5 eligible studies (all case series designs) were identified for inclusion. Included studies were of low-to-moderate methodological quality when assessed using the MINORS tool. A total of 250 flexor tenotomy procedures were performed in a total of 163 patients. Included studies generally reported good healing rates (92-100 % within 2 months) post-op follow-up), relatively few recurrences (0-18 % at 22 months median post-op follow-up), and low incidences of infection or new deformity. Transfer ulcers developing on adjacent areas as a result of shifted pressure were reported by several authors. The validity of these results is undermined by methodological limitations inherent to case series designs such as a lack of control groups, non-randomised designs, as well as inconsistent reporting of post-intervention follow-up periods. There was level 4 evidence for the flexor tenotomy procedure in facilitating ulcer healing and preventing re-ulceration.
CONCLUSION
More definitive research evidence is needed in this area to determine whether or not the flexor tenotomy is a safe and effective treatment option for people with, or at risk of developing diabetic toe ulcers. Whilst the available literature reports that the procedure may be associated with high healing rates, relatively low recurrence rates and low incidences of post-op complications, methodological limitations restrict the value of these findings.
Topics: Diabetic Foot; Foot Deformities, Acquired; Humans; Postoperative Care; Recurrence; Surgical Wound Infection; Tenotomy; Toe Joint; Wound Healing
PubMed: 27478505
DOI: 10.1186/s13047-016-0159-0 -
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2023Much research has examined the relationship between bradykinesia and gait impairment in persons with Parkinson's disease (PD). Specifically, impairments in repetitive...
INTRODUCTION
Much research has examined the relationship between bradykinesia and gait impairment in persons with Parkinson's disease (PD). Specifically, impairments in repetitive movements of the upper extremity have been associated with freezing of gait. Studies examining lower extremity repetitive movements are limited. Moreover, the use of external cueing has been a treatment strategy for both bradykinesia and gait, but information on how cues should be used is lacking. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of auditory cueing on one side versus both sides for bilateral repetitive toe tapping and gait, and to determine if there was a relationship between toe tapping and gait. We hypothesize that there will be no difference between the cueing conditions, but that there will be a significant association between repetitive toe tapping performance and gait performance.
METHODS
Twenty-seven persons with PD completed a toe tapping task in which the more affected side was cued at 70 beats per minute (BPM), the less affected side was cued at 70 BPM, and both sides were cued at 140 BPM. The same cueing conditions were completed for the gait task. Inter movement interval and amplitude data was collected and analyzed for the toe tapping task. Stance time, swing time, step length, and step width were collected and analyzed for the gait task.
RESULTS
Results revealed a significant difference in movement performance between the single side cueing conditions and both sides cued condition for inter movement interval (toe tapping), stance time (gait), step length (gait), and step width (gait). Moreover, results revealed a significant association between inter movement interval and stance time and step length.
DISCUSSION
These results would suggest that cueing both sides is better than only one side and that there is a relationship between toe tapping and gait performance when both sides are cued in persons with PD. This study adds to the literature exploring possible shared mechanisms between bradykinesia and gait in persons with PD.
PubMed: 37727863
DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1197247