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Nutrients May 2016Mothers' own milk is the best source of nutrition for nearly all infants. Beyond somatic growth, breast milk as a biologic fluid has a variety of other benefits,... (Review)
Review
Mothers' own milk is the best source of nutrition for nearly all infants. Beyond somatic growth, breast milk as a biologic fluid has a variety of other benefits, including modulation of postnatal intestinal function, immune ontogeny, and brain development. Although breastfeeding is highly recommended, breastfeeding may not always be possible, suitable or solely adequate. Infant formula is an industrially produced substitute for infant consumption. Infant formula attempts to mimic the nutritional composition of breast milk as closely as possible, and is based on cow's milk or soymilk. A number of alternatives to cow's milk-based formula also exist. In this article, we review the nutritional information of breast milk and infant formulas for better understanding of the importance of breastfeeding and the uses of infant formula from birth to 12 months of age when a substitute form of nutrition is required.
Topics: Adult; Breast Feeding; Female; Humans; Infant; Infant Formula; Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Infant, Newborn; Milk, Human
PubMed: 27187450
DOI: 10.3390/nu8050279 -
Nutrients Jun 2020Breastfeeding is natural and the optimal basis of infant nutrition and development, with many benefits for maternal health. Human milk is a dynamic fluid fulfilling an... (Review)
Review
Breastfeeding is natural and the optimal basis of infant nutrition and development, with many benefits for maternal health. Human milk is a dynamic fluid fulfilling an infant's specific nutritional requirements and guiding the growth, developmental, and physiological processes of the infant. Human milk is considered unique in composition, and it is influenced by several factors, such as maternal diet and health, body composition, and geographic region. Human milk stands as a model for infant formula providing nutritional solutions for infants not able to receive enough mother's milk. Infant formulas aim to mimic the composition and functionality of human milk by providing ingredients reflecting those of the latest human milk insights, such as oligosaccharides, bacteria, and bacterial metabolites. The objective of this narrative review is to discuss the most recent developments in infant formula with a special focus on human milk oligosaccharides and postbiotics.
Topics: Dietary Supplements; Female; Humans; Infant; Infant Formula; Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Infant, Newborn; Male; Milk, Human; Oligosaccharides; Synbiotics
PubMed: 32629970
DOI: 10.3390/nu12071952 -
Revista Chilena de Pediatria Feb 2017Breastfeeding is the nourishment designed by nature for the newborn and the infant; however its prevalence is nowadays not optimal. The aim of this article is to review... (Review)
Review
Breastfeeding is the nourishment designed by nature for the newborn and the infant; however its prevalence is nowadays not optimal. The aim of this article is to review the current evidence of the benefits of breastfeeding for children and society, and to elaborate the risks associated with the replacement of lactation with baby formulas. Breastfeeding is a protective factor for several infectious, atopic, and cardiovascular diseases as well as for leukaemia, necrotising enterocolitis, celiac disease, and inflammatory bowel disease. It also has a positive impact on neurodevelopment, improving IQ and reducing the risk of attention deficit disorder, and generalised developmental and behavioural disorders. Lactation can decrease the risk of sudden infant deaths syndrome by 36% and prevent 13% of infant mortality worldwide. Breastfeeding result in direct saving on the use of infant formulas and bottles, and indirectly on associated health costs, premature deaths, and quality-adjusted life years, among others. In addition, breastfeeding is environmentally friendly; it does not leave an ecological footprint in its production and consumption. The use of baby formulas and bottles have inherent risks, because they increase the risk of oral diseases, such as mouth breathing, malocclusion, alteration of bite, and tooth decay. Finally, the intestinal microbiota, oxygenation, and thermoregulation of infants are negatively affected by their use.
Topics: Breast Feeding; Female; Gastrointestinal Microbiome; Humans; Infant; Infant Formula; Infant Health; Infant, Newborn; Protective Factors; Quality-Adjusted Life Years
PubMed: 28288222
DOI: 10.4067/S0370-41062017000100001 -
Deutsches Arzteblatt International Jun 2016Proper infant nutrition promotes healthy growth and development and lowers the risk of disease in later life. (Review)
Review
BACKGROUND
Proper infant nutrition promotes healthy growth and development and lowers the risk of disease in later life.
METHODS
This review is based on pertinent articles retrieved by a selective search, including guidelines, meta-analyses, and systematic reviews.
RESULTS
Infants should be exclusively breast-fed until at least the age of 4 months. Infants who are no longer being breast-fed, or no longer exclusively so, should be given commercially available low-protein infant formula containing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Infants with a family history of allergy should be fed with infant formula based on hydrolyzed protein until complementary feeding begins. Complementary feeding should be initiated no earlier than the beginning of the 5th month and no later than the beginning of the 7th; it should include iron derived from meat, as well as fish once or twice a week. Later initiation of complementary feeding is associated with an increased risk of allergies and is not recommended. Ordinary cow's milk should not be drunk in the first year of life. All infants should be given 2 mg of vitamin K at birth, at 7-10 days, and at 4-6 weeks of age, as well as daily oral supplementation of vitamin D (400-500 IE) and fluoride (0.25 mg).
CONCLUSION
Physicians should advise families about healthful infant nutrition in order to lay the foundation for lifelong good health through a proper diet.
Topics: Animals; Breast Feeding; Evidence-Based Medicine; Female; Germany; Humans; Infant Formula; Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Infant, Newborn; Male; Milk; Milk, Human; Practice Guidelines as Topic
PubMed: 27397020
DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.2016.0435 -
Journal of Developmental Origins of... Dec 2018Early nutrition may have long-lasting metabolic impacts in adulthood. Even though breast milk is the gold standard, most infants are at least partly formula-fed. Despite... (Review)
Review
Early nutrition may have long-lasting metabolic impacts in adulthood. Even though breast milk is the gold standard, most infants are at least partly formula-fed. Despite obvious improvements, infant formulas remain perfectible to reduce the gap between breastfed and formula-fed infants. Improvements such as reducing the protein content, modulating the lipid matrix and adding prebiotics, probiotics and synbiotics, are discussed regarding metabolic health. Numerous questions remain to be answered on how impacting the infant formula composition may modulate the host metabolism and exert long-term benefits. Interactions between early nutrition (composition of human milk and infant formula) and the gut microbiota profile, as well as mechanisms connecting gut microbiota to metabolic health, are highlighted. Gut microbiota stands as a key actor in the nutritional programming but additional well-designed longitudinal human studies are needed.
Topics: Bottle Feeding; Breast Feeding; Gastrointestinal Microbiome; Humans; Infant; Infant Formula; Infant, Newborn; Metabolic Diseases; Metabolism; Milk, Human
PubMed: 29397805
DOI: 10.1017/S2040174417000964 -
Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology... Apr 2017The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of infant formula supplemented with 2 human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) on infant growth, tolerance, and morbidity. (Randomized Controlled Trial)
Randomized Controlled Trial
OBJECTIVES
The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of infant formula supplemented with 2 human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) on infant growth, tolerance, and morbidity.
METHODS
Healthy infants, 0 to 14 days old, were randomized to an intact-protein, cow's milk-based infant formula (control, n = 87) or the same formula with 1.0 g/L 2'fucosyllactose (2'FL) and 0.5 g/L lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT) (test, n = 88) from enrollment to 6 months; all infants received standard follow-up formula without HMOs from 6 to 12 months. Primary endpoint was weight gain through 4 months. Secondary endpoints included additional anthropometric measures, gastrointestinal tolerance, behavioral patterns, and morbidity through age 12 months.
RESULTS
Weight gain was similar in both groups (mean difference [95% confidence interval] test vs control: -0.30 [-1.94, 1.34] g/day; lower bound of 95% confidence interval was above noninferiority margin [-3 g/day]). Digestive symptoms and behavioral patterns were similar between groups; exceptions included softer stool (P = 0.021) and fewer nighttime wake-ups (P = 0.036) in the test group at 2 months. Infants receiving test (vs control) had significantly fewer parental reports (P = 0.004-0.047) of bronchitis through 4 (2.3% vs 12.6%), 6 (6.8% vs 21.8%), and 12 months (10.2% vs 27.6%); lower respiratory tract infection (adverse event cluster) through 12 months (19.3% vs 34.5%); antipyretics use through 4 months (15.9% vs 29.9%); and antibiotics use through 6 (34.1% vs 49.4%) and 12 months (42.0% vs 60.9%).
CONCLUSIONS
Infant formula with 2'FL and LNnT is safe, well-tolerated, and supports age-appropriate growth. Secondary outcome findings showing associations between consuming HMO-supplemented formula and lower parent-reported morbidity (particularly bronchitis) and medication use (antipyretics and antibiotics) warrant confirmation in future studies.
Topics: Animals; Double-Blind Method; Female; Follow-Up Studies; Humans; Infant; Infant Formula; Infant, Newborn; Male; Milk; Milk, Human; Oligosaccharides; Protective Factors; Respiratory Tract Infections; Weight Gain
PubMed: 28107288
DOI: 10.1097/MPG.0000000000001520 -
Biomolecules Dec 2019The Maillard reaction is a simple but ubiquitous reaction that occurs both in vivo and ex vivo during the cooking or processing of foods under high-temperature... (Review)
Review
The Maillard reaction is a simple but ubiquitous reaction that occurs both in vivo and ex vivo during the cooking or processing of foods under high-temperature conditions, such as baking, frying, or grilling. Glycation of proteins is a post-translational modification that forms temporary adducts, which, on further crosslinking and rearrangement, form permanent residues known as advanced glycation end products (AGEs). Cooking at high temperature results in various food products having high levels of AGEs. This review underlines the basis of AGE formation and their corresponding deleterious effects on the body. Glycated Maillard products have a direct association with the pathophysiology of some metabolic diseases, such as diabetes mellitus type 2 (DM2), acute renal failure (ARF), Alzheimer's disease, dental health, allergies, and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). The most glycated and structurally abundant protein is collagen, which acts as a marker for diabetes and aging, where decreased levels indicate reduced skin elasticity. In diabetes, high levels of AGEs are associated with carotid thickening, ischemic heart disease, uremic cardiomyopathy, and kidney failure. AGEs also mimic hormones or regulate/modify their receptor mechanisms at the DNA level. In women, a high AGE diet directly correlates with high levels of androgens, anti-Müllerian hormone, insulin, and androstenedione, promoting ovarian dysfunction and/or infertility. Vitamin D3 is well-associated with the pathogenesis of PCOS and modulates steroidogenesis. It also exhibits a protective mechanism against the harmful effects of AGEs. This review elucidates and summarizes the processing of infant formula milk and the associated health hazards. Formulated according to the nutritional requirements of the newborn as a substitute for mother's milk, formula milk is a rich source of primary adducts, such as carboxy-methyl lysine, which render an infant prone to inflammation, dementia, food allergies, and other diseases. We therefore recommend that understanding this post-translational modification is the key to unlocking the mechanisms and physiology of various metabolic syndromes.
Topics: Animals; Diet; Glycation End Products, Advanced; Humans; Infant Formula; Infant, Newborn; Metabolic Syndrome; Milk
PubMed: 31861217
DOI: 10.3390/biom9120888 -
Nutrients Jun 2022Infant formulas have been designed to mimic human milk for infants who cannot be breastfed. The overall goal is to establish similar functional outcomes to assure... (Review)
Review
Infant formulas have been designed to mimic human milk for infants who cannot be breastfed. The overall goal is to establish similar functional outcomes to assure optimal growth, development, maturation of the immune system, and programming of the metabolic system. However, after decades of improving infant formula, growth patterns and body composition development are still different in formula-fed infants compared to breastfed infants, which could contribute to an increased risk of obesity among formula-fed infants. It has been hypothesized that the lower protein concentration of breast milk compared to infant formula influences infants' growth and body composition. Thus, several trials in formula-fed infants with different protein intake levels have been performed to test this hypothesis. In this review, we discuss the current evidence on low-protein infant formula and obesity risk, including future perspectives and implications.
Topics: Breast Feeding; Female; Humans; Infant; Infant Formula; Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Milk, Human; Obesity
PubMed: 35807908
DOI: 10.3390/nu14132728 -
Science Progress Oct 2018Nutritionally, the first 1,000 days of an infant's life - from conception to two years - has been identified as a highly influential period, during which lasting health... (Review)
Review
Nutritionally, the first 1,000 days of an infant's life - from conception to two years - has been identified as a highly influential period, during which lasting health can be achieved. Significant evidence links patterns of infant feeding to both short and long-term health outcomes, many of which can be prevented through nutritional modifications. Recommended globally, breastfeeding is recognised as the gold standard of infant nutrition; providing key nutrients to achieve optimal health, growth and development, and conferring immunologic protective effects against disease. Nevertheless, infant formulas are often the sole source of nutrition for many infants during the first stage of life. Producers of infant formula strive to supply high quality, healthy, safe alternatives to breast milk with a comparable balance of nutrients to human milk imitating its composition and functional performance measures. The concept of 'nutritional programming', and the theory that exposure to specific conditions, can predispose an individual's health status in later life has become an accepted dictum, and has sparked important nutritional research prospects. This review explores the impact of early life nutrition, specifically, how different feeding methods affect health outcomes.
Topics: Bottle Feeding; Breast Feeding; Humans; Infant; Infant Formula; Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; Infant, Newborn; Nutritive Value
PubMed: 30296969
DOI: 10.3184/003685018X15360040523721 -
Maternal & Child Nutrition Jun 2019
Topics: Child, Preschool; Developing Countries; Diet; Humans; Infant; Infant Food; Infant Formula; Infant, Newborn; Marketing; Nutrition Policy; Nutritive Value; Prevalence; Snacks; Urban Population
PubMed: 31225711
DOI: 10.1111/mcn.12810