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Current Opinion in Virology Feb 2018In general, orthopoxviruses can be considered as falling into one of three host-utilization categories: highly specialized, single-host; broad host range; or 'cryptic',... (Review)
Review
In general, orthopoxviruses can be considered as falling into one of three host-utilization categories: highly specialized, single-host; broad host range; or 'cryptic', the last encompassing those viruses about which very little is known. Single-host viruses tend to exploit abundant hosts that have consistent patterns of interaction. For these viruses, observed genome reduction and loss of presumptive host-range genes is thought to be a consequence of relaxed selection. In contrast, the large genome size retained among broad host range orthopoxviruses suggests these viruses may depend on multiple host species for persistence in nature. Our understanding of the ecologic requirements of orthopoxviruses is strongly influenced by geographic biases in data collection. This hinders our ability to predict potential sources for emergence of orthopoxvirus-associated infections.
Topics: Animals; Disease Reservoirs; Evolution, Molecular; Genome, Viral; Host Specificity; Host-Pathogen Interactions; Humans; Orthopoxvirus; Poxviridae Infections
PubMed: 29288901
DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2017.11.012 -
Efficacy of biocidal agents and disinfectants against the monkeypox virus and other orthopoxviruses.The Journal of Hospital Infection Sep 2022The number of human monkeypox virus infections is increasing in many countries. The typical mode of transmission is by direct contact. As orthopoxviruses may stay... (Review)
Review
The number of human monkeypox virus infections is increasing in many countries. The typical mode of transmission is by direct contact. As orthopoxviruses may stay infectious on inanimate surfaces under laboratory conditions for up to 42 days, disinfection may be relevant in the surroundings of confirmed cases. The aim of this review was to evaluate published data on the antiviral efficacy of biocidal agents and disinfectants against the monkeypox virus and other orthopoxviruses. A Medline search was carried out on 5 June 2022. The terms 'monkeypox virus', 'poxvirus' and 'orthopoxvirus' were used in combination with 'disinfection'. Publications were included and results were extracted where they provided original data on any orthopoxvirus regarding its inactivation by disinfectants. Vaccinia viruses could be inactivated by at least 4 log in suspension tests and on artificially contaminated surfaces by 70% ethanol (≤1 min), 0.2% peracetic acid (≤10 min) and 1-10% of a probiotic cleaner (1 h), mostly shown with different types of organic load. Hydrogen peroxide (14.4%) and iodine (0.04-1%) were effective in suspension tests, sodium hypochlorite (0.25-2.5%; 1 min), 2% glutaraldehyde (10 min) and 0.55% orthophthalaldehyde (5 min) were effective on artificially contaminated surfaces. Copper (99.9%) was equally effective against vaccinia virus and monkeypox virus in 3 min. Disinfectants with efficacy data obtained in suspension tests and under practical conditions with different types of organic load resembling compounds of the blood, the respiratory tract and skin lesions are preferred for the inactivation of the monkeypox virus.
Topics: Animals; Disinfectants; Disinfection; Humans; Mpox (monkeypox); Monkeypox virus; Orthopoxvirus; Viruses
PubMed: 35777702
DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2022.06.012 -
Clinical Immunology (Orlando, Fla.) Oct 2022Monkeypox is a zoonotic Orthopoxvirus which has predominantly affected humans living in western and central Africa since the 1970s. Type I and II interferon signaling,... (Review)
Review
Monkeypox is a zoonotic Orthopoxvirus which has predominantly affected humans living in western and central Africa since the 1970s. Type I and II interferon signaling, NK cell function, and serologic immunity are critical for host immunity against monkeypox. Monkeypox can evade host viral recognition and block interferon signaling, leading to overall case fatality rates of up to 11%. The incidence of monkeypox has increased since cessation of smallpox vaccination. In 2022, a global outbreak emerged, predominantly affecting males, with exclusive human-to-human transmission and more phenotypic variability than earlier outbreaks. Available vaccines are safe and effective tools for prevention of severe disease, but supply is limited. Now considered a public health emergency, more studies are needed to better characterize at-risk populations and to develop new anti-viral therapies.
Topics: Communicable Diseases; Humans; Interferons; Male; Mpox (monkeypox); Monkeypox virus; Orthopoxvirus; Poxviridae Infections
PubMed: 36067982
DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2022.109108 -
Virology Journal Jun 2023Mpox (monkeypox) infection cases increased recently in non-Mpox outbreak areas, potentially causing an international threat. The desire to defend against a potential...
Mpox (monkeypox) infection cases increased recently in non-Mpox outbreak areas, potentially causing an international threat. The desire to defend against a potential outbreak has led to renewed efforts to develop Mpox vaccines. In this report, mice were immunized with various doses of modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) to evaluate the cross-reactive immune response of MVA immunization against protective antigens of the current monkeypox virus. We demonstrated that MVA induced specific antibodies against protective antigens (A29, A35, B6, M1, H3, and I1), mediating the neutralization abilities against the MVA and the monkeypox virus (MPXV). Moreover, recombinant protective antigens of the MPXV elicited cross-binding and cross-neutralizing activities for MVA. Hence, the MVA induced cross-reactive immune responses, which may guide future efforts to develop vaccines against the recent MPXV. Notably, compared to the other protective antigens, the predominant A29 and M1 antigens mediated higher cross-neutralizing immune responses against the MVA, which could serve as antigen targets for novel orthologous orthopoxvirus vaccine.
Topics: Animals; Mice; Monkeypox virus; Antibodies, Viral; Vaccinia virus; Vaccination; Immunity
PubMed: 37337226
DOI: 10.1186/s12985-023-02085-0 -
Infection, Genetics and Evolution :... Nov 2022In the last five years, the prevalence of monkeypox has been increasing both in the regions considered endemic for the disease (West and Central Africa) and worldwide.... (Review)
Review
In the last five years, the prevalence of monkeypox has been increasing both in the regions considered endemic for the disease (West and Central Africa) and worldwide. Indeed, in July 2022, the World Health Organization declared the ongoing global outbreak of monkeypox a public health emergency of international concern. The disease is caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), a member of the Orthopoxvirus genus, which also includes variola virus (the causative agent of smallpox) and vaccinia virus (used in the smallpox eradication campaign). Here, we review aspects of MPXV genetic diversity and epidemiology, with an emphasis on its genome structure, host range, and relationship with other orthopoxviruses. We also summarize the most recent findings deriving from the sequencing of outbreak MPXV genomes, and we discuss the apparent changing of MPXV evolutionary trajectory, which is characterized by the accumulation of point mutations rather than by gene gains/losses. Whereas the availability of a vaccine, the relatively mild presentation of the disease, and its relatively low transmissibility speak in favor of an efficient control of the global outbreak, the wide host range of MPXV raises concerns about the possible establishment of novel reservoirs. We also call for the deployment of field surveys and genomic surveillance programs to identify and control the MPXV reservoirs in West and Central Africa.
Topics: Humans; Monkeypox virus; Mpox (monkeypox); Smallpox; Africa, Central
PubMed: 36202208
DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2022.105372 -
Immunological Reviews Jan 2011The eradication of smallpox, one of the great triumphs of medicine, was accomplished through the prophylactic administration of live vaccinia virus, a comparatively... (Review)
Review
The eradication of smallpox, one of the great triumphs of medicine, was accomplished through the prophylactic administration of live vaccinia virus, a comparatively benign relative of variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox. Nevertheless, recent fears that variola virus may be used as a biological weapon together with the present susceptibility of unimmunized populations have spurred the development of new-generation vaccines that are safer than the original and can be produced by modern methods. Predicting the efficacy of such vaccines in the absence of human smallpox, however, depends on understanding the correlates of protection. This review outlines the biology of poxviruses with particular relevance to vaccine development, describes protein targets of humoral and cellular immunity, compares animal models of orthopoxvirus disease with human smallpox, and considers the status of second- and third-generation smallpox vaccines.
Topics: Animals; Antibodies, Viral; Biological Warfare Agents; Disease Models, Animal; Gene Expression Regulation, Viral; Humans; Mice; Orthopoxvirus; Poxviridae Infections; Smallpox; Smallpox Vaccine; Vaccines; Vaccinia virus; Variola virus
PubMed: 21198662
DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065X.2010.00975.x -
Viruses Aug 2022Among the family, is the most notorious genus. Several DNA viruses belonging to this group are known to produce human disease from the life-threatening variola virus... (Review)
Review
Among the family, is the most notorious genus. Several DNA viruses belonging to this group are known to produce human disease from the life-threatening variola virus (VARV) (the causative agent of smallpox), monkeypox virus (MPXV), cowpox virus (CPXV), and vaccinia virus (VACV). These still remain a public health concern as VACV or CPXV still cause emerging endemic threads, especially in developing countries. MPXV is able to cause sporadic human outbreaks of a smallpox-like zoonotic disease and, in May 2022, hundreds of cases related to MPXV have been reported from more than 30 countries around the globe. At the end of July, monkeypox (MPX) outbreak was even declared a global health emergency by the World Health Organization (WHO). Many aspects remain unclear regarding this outbreak and a deep understanding of might have crucial and evident implications. During the era in which people under 45 years old are not protected against VACV, the potential use of as a biological weapon raises global concern considering the rapid spreading of the current MPX outbreak in vulnerable populations. Hence, we review the most recent evidence about phylogenesis, pathogenesis, prevention, and treatment for this concerning disease.
Topics: Biological Warfare Agents; Cowpox virus; Humans; Middle Aged; Mpox (monkeypox); Monkeypox virus; Orthopoxvirus; Smallpox; Vaccinia virus; Variola virus
PubMed: 36146705
DOI: 10.3390/v14091894 -
Frontiers in Immunology 2020Cells express multiple molecules aimed at detecting incoming virus and infection. Recognition of virus infection leads to the production of cytokines, chemokines and... (Review)
Review
Cells express multiple molecules aimed at detecting incoming virus and infection. Recognition of virus infection leads to the production of cytokines, chemokines and restriction factors that limit virus replication and activate an adaptive immune response offering long-term protection. Recognition of cytosolic DNA has become a central immune sensing mechanism involved in infection, autoinflammation, and cancer immunotherapy. Vaccinia virus (VACV) is the prototypic member of the family Poxviridae and the vaccine used to eradicate smallpox. VACV harbors enormous potential as a vaccine vector and several attenuated strains are currently being developed against infectious diseases. In addition, VACV has emerged as a popular oncolytic agent due to its cytotoxic capacity even in hypoxic environments. As a poxvirus, VACV is an unusual virus that replicates its large DNA genome exclusively in the cytoplasm of infected cells. Despite producing large amounts of cytosolic DNA, VACV efficiently suppresses the subsequent innate immune response by deploying an arsenal of proteins with capacity to disable host antiviral signaling, some of which specifically target cytosolic DNA sensing pathways. Some of these strategies are conserved amongst orthopoxviruses, whereas others are seemingly unique to VACV. In this review we provide an overview of the VACV replicative cycle and discuss the recent advances on our understanding of how VACV induces and antagonizes innate immune activation via cytosolic DNA sensing pathways. The implications of these findings in the rational design of vaccines and oncolytics based on VACV are also discussed.
Topics: Animals; Cytosol; DNA, Viral; Humans; Vaccinia virus; Virus Activation
PubMed: 33117352
DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.568412 -
Journal of Infection and Public Health Oct 2022The monkeypox virus (MPXV) is the cause of a zoonotic infection similar to smallpox. Although it is endemic to Africa, it has recently begun to circulate in other parts... (Review)
Review
The monkeypox virus (MPXV) is the cause of a zoonotic infection similar to smallpox. Although it is endemic to Africa, it has recently begun to circulate in other parts of the world. In July 2022, the World Health Organization declared monkeypox an international public health emergency. This review aims to provide an overview of this neglected zoonotic pathogen. MPXV circulates as two distinct clades, the Central African and West African, with case fatality rates of 10.6% and 3.6%, respectively. The risk of infection is greater for those who work with animals or infected individuals. The virus' entry into the human body provokes both natural and acquired immunity. Although natural killer cells, CD4 + T cells, and CD8 + T cells play an essential role in eradicating MPXV, there is still a gap in the understanding of the host immune response to the virus. Currently, there are no specific therapeutic guidelines for treating monkeypox; however, some antiviral drugs such as tecovirimat and cidofovir may help to abate the severity of the disease. The use of nonpharmaceutical interventions and immunization can reduce the risk of infection. Increased surveillance and identification of monkeypox cases are crucial to understand the constantly shifting epidemiology of this resurging and intimidating disease. The present review provides a detailed perspective on the emergence and circulation of MPXV in human populations, infection risks, human immune response, disease diagnosis and prevention strategies, and future implications, and highlights the importance of the research community engaging more with this disease for an effective global response.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Mpox (monkeypox); Public Health; Monkeypox virus; Africa
PubMed: 36174285
DOI: 10.1016/j.jiph.2022.09.008 -
Viruses Aug 2023Smallpox was eradicated in less than 200 years after Edward Jenner's practice of cowpox variolation in 1796. The forty-three years of us living free of smallpox,... (Review)
Review
Smallpox was eradicated in less than 200 years after Edward Jenner's practice of cowpox variolation in 1796. The forty-three years of us living free of smallpox, beginning in 1979, never truly separated us from poxviruses. The recent outbreak of monkeypox in May 2022 might well warn us of the necessity of keeping up both the scientific research and public awareness of poxviruses. One of them in particular, the vaccinia virus (VACV), has been extensively studied as a vector given its broad host range, extraordinary thermal stability, and exceptional immunogenicity. Unceasing fundamental biological research on VACV provides us with a better understanding of its genetic elements, involvement in cellular signaling pathways, and modulation of host immune responses. This enables the rational design of safer and more efficacious next-generation vectors. To address the new technological advancement within the past decade in VACV research, this review covers the studies of viral immunomodulatory genes, modifications in commonly used vectors, novel mechanisms for rapid generation and purification of recombinant virus, and several other innovative approaches to studying its biology.
Topics: Humans; Smallpox; Vaccinia virus; Variola virus; Poxviridae; Orthopoxvirus
PubMed: 37632084
DOI: 10.3390/v15081742