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Mini Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry 2017Open tetrapyrroles termed phycobilins represent the major photosynthetic accessory pigments of several cyanobacteria and some eukaryotic algae such as the Glaucophyta,... (Review)
Review
BACKGROUND
Open tetrapyrroles termed phycobilins represent the major photosynthetic accessory pigments of several cyanobacteria and some eukaryotic algae such as the Glaucophyta, Cryptophyta and Rhodophyta. These pigments are covalently bound to so-called phycobiliproteins which are in general organized into phycobilisomes on the thylakoid membranes.
OBJECTIVE & METHODS
In this work we first briefly describe the physico-chemical properties, biosynthesis, occurrence, in vivo localization and roles of the phycobilin pigments and the phycobiliproteins. Then the potential applications and uses of these pigments, pigment-protein complexes and related products by the food industry (e.g., as LinaBlue® or the so-called spirulina extract used as coloring food), by the health industry or as fluorescent dyes are critically reviewed.
CONCLUSION
In addition to the stability, bioavailability and safety issues of purified phycobilins and phycobiliproteins, literature data about their antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective and neuroprotective effects, and their potential use in photodynamic therapy (PDT) are also discussed.
Topics: Anti-Inflammatory Agents; Antineoplastic Agents; Antioxidants; Cardiovascular Diseases; Cryptophyta; Food Coloring Agents; Humans; Immunologic Factors; Neoplasms; Neurodegenerative Diseases; Phycobilins; Phycobiliproteins; Rhodophyta
PubMed: 27633748
DOI: 10.2174/1389557516666160912180155 -
Journal of Immunology Research 2022Phycocyanobilin (PCB) is a linear open-chain tetrapyrrole chromophore that captures and senses light and a variety of biological activities, such as anti-oxidation,... (Review)
Review
Phycocyanobilin (PCB) is a linear open-chain tetrapyrrole chromophore that captures and senses light and a variety of biological activities, such as anti-oxidation, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory. In this paper, the biological activities of PCB are reviewed, and the related mechanism of PCB and its latest application in disease treatment are introduced. PCB can resist oxidation by scavenging free radicals, inhibiting the activity of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase, and delaying the activity of antioxidant enzymes. In addition, PCB can also be used as an excellent anti-inflammatory agent to reduce the proinflammatory factors IL-6 and IFN- and to up-regulate the production of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 by inhibiting the inflammatory signal pathways NF-B and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). Due to the above biological activities of phycocyanobilin PCB, it is expected to become a new effective drug for treating various diseases, such as COVID-19 complications, atherosclerosis, multiple sclerosis (MS), and ischaemic stroke (IS).
Topics: Anti-Inflammatory Agents; Brain Ischemia; Humans; MAP Kinase Signaling System; NADPH Oxidases; NF-kappa B; Phycobilins; Phycocyanin; Spirulina
PubMed: 35726224
DOI: 10.1155/2022/4008991 -
Marine Drugs Mar 2021Algae are considered pigment-producing organisms. The function of these compounds in algae is to carry out photosynthesis. They have a great variety of pigments, which... (Review)
Review
Algae are considered pigment-producing organisms. The function of these compounds in algae is to carry out photosynthesis. They have a great variety of pigments, which can be classified into three large groups: chlorophylls, carotenoids, and phycobilins. Within the carotenoids are xanthophylls. Xanthophylls (fucoxanthin, astaxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, and β-cryptoxanthin) are a type of carotenoids with anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory activities, due to their chemical structure rich in double bonds that provides them with antioxidant properties. In this context, xanthophylls can protect other molecules from oxidative stress by turning off singlet oxygen damage through various mechanisms. Based on clinical studies, this review shows the available information concerning the bioactivity and biological effects of the main xanthophylls present in algae. In addition, the algae with the highest production rate of the different compounds of interest were studied. It was observed that fucoxanthin is obtained mainly from the brown seaweeds , , , spp., and spp. The main sources of astaxanthin are the microalgae , and sp. Lutein and zeaxanthin are mainly found in algal species such as , , spp., or spp. However, the extraction and purification processes of xanthophylls from algae need to be standardized to facilitate their commercialization. Finally, we assessed factors that determine the bioavailability and bioaccesibility of these molecules. We also suggested techniques that increase xanthophyll's bioavailability.
Topics: Animals; Anti-Inflammatory Agents; Antioxidants; Cyanobacteria; Dietary Supplements; Humans; Microalgae; Nutritive Value; Rhodophyta; Seaweed; Stramenopiles; Xanthophylls
PubMed: 33801636
DOI: 10.3390/md19040188 -
International Journal of Molecular... Jun 2019Neuroinflammation is one of the main contributors to the onset and progression of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Microglial and... (Review)
Review
Neuroinflammation is one of the main contributors to the onset and progression of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Microglial and astrocyte activation is a brain defense mechanism to counteract harmful pathogens and damaged tissues, while their prolonged activation induces neuroinflammation that can trigger or exacerbate neurodegeneration. Unfortunately, to date there are no pharmacological therapies able to slow down or stop the progression of neurodegeneration. For this reason, research is turning to the identification of natural compounds with protective action against these diseases. Considering the important role of neuroinflammation in the onset and development of neurodegenerative pathologies, natural compounds with anti-inflammatory activity could be good candidates for developing effective therapeutic strategies. Marine organisms represent a huge source of natural compounds, and among them, algae are appreciated sources of important bioactive components such as antioxidants, proteins, vitamins, minerals, soluble dietary fibers, polyunsaturated fatty acids, polysaccharides, sterols, carotenoids, tocopherols, terpenes, phycobilins, phycocolloids, and phycocyanins. Recently, numerous anti-inflammatory compounds have been isolated from marine algae with potential protective efficacy against neuroinflammation. This review highlights the key inflammatory processes involved in neurodegeneration and the potential of specific compounds from marine algae to counteract neuroinflammation in the CNS.
Topics: Alzheimer Disease; Animals; Anti-Inflammatory Agents; Antioxidants; Brain; Carotenoids; Humans; Inflammation; Neurodegenerative Diseases; Parkinson Disease; Phytochemicals; Seaweed; Sterols; Terpenes
PubMed: 31234555
DOI: 10.3390/ijms20123061 -
Frontiers in Plant Science 2016Biosynthesis of chlorophyll (Chl) involves many enzymatic reactions that share several first steps for biosynthesis of other tetrapyrroles such as heme, siroheme, and... (Review)
Review
Biosynthesis of chlorophyll (Chl) involves many enzymatic reactions that share several first steps for biosynthesis of other tetrapyrroles such as heme, siroheme, and phycobilins. Chl allows photosynthetic organisms to capture light energy for photosynthesis but with simultaneous threat of photooxidative damage to cells. To prevent photodamage by Chl and its highly photoreactive intermediates, photosynthetic organisms have developed multiple levels of regulatory mechanisms to coordinate tetrapyrrole biosynthesis (TPB) with the formation of photosynthetic and photoprotective systems and to fine-tune the metabolic flow with the varying needs of Chl and other tetrapyrroles under various developmental and environmental conditions. Among a wide range of regulatory mechanisms of TPB, this review summarizes transcriptional regulation of TPB genes during plant development, with focusing on several transcription factors characterized in . Key TPB genes are tightly coexpressed with other photosynthesis-associated nuclear genes and are induced by light, oscillate in a diurnal and circadian manner, are coordinated with developmental and nutritional status, and are strongly downregulated in response to arrested chloroplast biogenesis. LONG HYPOCOTYL 5 and PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTORs, which are positive and negative transcription factors with a wide range of light signaling, respectively, target many TPB genes for light and circadian regulation. GOLDEN2-LIKE transcription factors directly regulate key TPB genes to fine-tune the formation of the photosynthetic apparatus with chloroplast functionality. Some transcription factors such as FAR-RED ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL3, REVEILLE1, and scarecrow-like transcription factors may directly regulate some specific TPB genes, whereas other factors such as GATA transcription factors are likely to regulate TPB genes in an indirect manner. Comprehensive transcriptional analyses of TPB genes and detailed characterization of key transcriptional regulators help us obtain a whole picture of transcriptional control of TPB in response to environmental and endogenous cues.
PubMed: 27990150
DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01811 -
Nutrients Feb 2021Marine and freshwater algae and their products are in growing demand worldwide because of their nutritional and functional properties. Microalgae (unicellular algae)... (Review)
Review
Marine and freshwater algae and their products are in growing demand worldwide because of their nutritional and functional properties. Microalgae (unicellular algae) will constitute one of the major foods of the future for nutritional and environmental reasons. They are sources of high-quality protein and bioactive molecules with potential application in the modern epidemics of obesity and diabetes. They may also contribute decisively to sustainability through carbon dioxide fixation and minimization of agricultural land use. This paper reviews current knowledge of the effects of consuming edible microalgae on the metabolic alterations known as metabolic syndrome (MS). These microalgae include , () and as well as and as candidates for human consumption. biomass has shown antioxidant, antidiabetic, immunomodulatory, antihypertensive, and antihyperlipidemic effects in humans and other mammals. The components of microalgae reviewed suggest that they may be effective against MS at two levels: in the early stages, to work against the development of insulin resistance (IR), and later, when pancreatic -cell function is already compromised. The active components at both stages are antioxidant scavengers and anti-inflammatory lipid mediators such as carotenoids and -3 PUFAs (eicosapentaenoic acid/docosahexaenoic acid; EPA/DHA), prebiotic polysaccharides, phenolics, antihypertensive peptides, several pigments such as phycobilins and phycocyanin, and some vitamins, such as folate. As a source of high-quality protein, including an array of bioactive molecules with potential activity against the modern epidemics of obesity and diabetes, microalgae are proposed as excellent foods for the future. Moreover, their incorporation into the human diet would decisively contribute to a more sustainable world because of their roles in carbon dioxide fixation and reducing the use of land for agricultural purposes.
Topics: Animals; Anti-Inflammatory Agents; Antioxidants; Biological Factors; Chlorella; Diabetes Mellitus; Diet; Dietary Proteins; Functional Food; Humans; Hypoglycemic Agents; Metabolic Diseases; Microalgae; Obesity; Spirulina
PubMed: 33572056
DOI: 10.3390/nu13020563 -
Marine Drugs Jul 2022Phycobiliproteins (PBPs) are colored and water-soluble biliproteins found in cyanobacteria, rhodophytes, cryptomonads and cyanelles. They are divided into three main... (Review)
Review
Phycobiliproteins (PBPs) are colored and water-soluble biliproteins found in cyanobacteria, rhodophytes, cryptomonads and cyanelles. They are divided into three main types: allophycocyanin, phycocyanin and phycoerythrin, according to their spectral properties. There are two methods for PBPs preparation. One is the extraction and purification of native PBPs from Cyanobacteria, Cryptophyta and Rhodophyta, and the other way is the production of recombinant PBPs by heterologous hosts. Apart from their function as light-harvesting antenna in photosynthesis, PBPs can be used as food colorants, nutraceuticals and fluorescent probes in immunofluorescence analysis. An increasing number of reports have revealed their pharmaceutical potentials such as antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic effects. The advances in PBP biogenesis make it feasible to construct novel PBPs with various activities and produce recombinant PBPs by heterologous hosts at low cost. In this review, we present a critical overview on the productions, characterization and pharmaceutical potentials of PBPs, and discuss the key issues and future perspectives on the exploration of these valuable proteins.
Topics: Cryptophyta; Cyanobacteria; Pharmaceutical Preparations; Phycobiliproteins; Phycoerythrin; Rhodophyta
PubMed: 35877743
DOI: 10.3390/md20070450 -
Journal of Biosciences 2021Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative condition provoking the loss of cognitive and memory performances. Despite huge efforts to develop effective... (Review)
Review
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative condition provoking the loss of cognitive and memory performances. Despite huge efforts to develop effective AD therapies, there is still no cure for this neurological condition. Here, we review the main biological properties of Phycocyanobilin (PCB), accounting for its potential uses against AD. PCB, given individually or released in vivo from C-Phycocyanin (C-PC), acts as a bioactive-molecule-mediating antioxidant, is anti-inflammatory and has immunomodulatory activities. PCB/C-PC are able to scavenge reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, to counteract lipid peroxidation and to inhibit enzymes such as NADPH oxidase and COX-2. In animal models of multiple sclerosis and ischemic stroke, these compounds induce remyelination as demonstrated by electron microscopy and the expression of genes such as up-regulation of and down-regulation. These treatments also reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines levels and induce immune suppressive genes. PCB/C-PC protects isolated rat brain mitochondria and inactivate microglia, astrocytes and neuronal apoptosis mediators. Such processes are all involved in the pathogenic cascade of AD, and thus PCB may effectively mitigate the injury in this condition. Furthermore, PCB can be administered safely by oral or parenteral routes and therefore, could be commercially offered as a nutraceutical supplement or as a pharmaceutical drug.
Topics: Alzheimer Disease; Animals; Anti-Inflammatory Agents; Antioxidants; Dietary Supplements; Disease Models, Animal; Gene Expression Regulation; Humans; Immunologic Factors; Microglia; Nerve Tissue Proteins; Oxidative Stress; Phycobilins; Phycocyanin; Rats; Reactive Nitrogen Species; Reactive Oxygen Species; Remyelination
PubMed: 34047285
DOI: No ID Found -
Marine Drugs Oct 2023Phycobiliproteins (PBPs) are natural water-soluble pigment proteins, which constitute light-collecting antennae, and function in algae photosynthesis, existing in... (Review)
Review
Phycobiliproteins (PBPs) are natural water-soluble pigment proteins, which constitute light-collecting antennae, and function in algae photosynthesis, existing in cyanobacteria, red algae, and cryptomonads. They are special pigment-protein complexes in algae with a unique structure and function. According to their spectral properties, PBPs can be mainly divided into three types: allophycocyanin, phycocyanin, and PE. At present, there are two main sources of PBPs: one is natural PBPs extracted from algae and the other way is recombinant PBPs which are produced in engineered microorganisms. The covalent connection between PBP and streptavidin was realized by gene fusion. The bridge cascade reaction not only improved the sensitivity of PBP as a fluorescent probe but also saved the preparation time of the probe, which expands the application range of PBPs as fluorescent probes. In addition to its function as a light-collecting antenna in photosynthesis, PBPs also have the functions of biological detection, ion detection, and fluorescence imaging. Notably, increasing studies have designed novel PBP-based far-red fluorescent proteins, which enable the tracking of gene expression and cell fate.
Topics: Phycobiliproteins; Fluorescent Dyes; Photosynthesis
PubMed: 37999396
DOI: 10.3390/md21110572 -
Biotechnology For Biofuels and... Nov 2023Phycobiliproteins (PBPs), one of the functional proteins from algae, are natural pigment-protein complex containing various amino acids and phycobilins. It has various... (Review)
Review
Phycobiliproteins (PBPs), one of the functional proteins from algae, are natural pigment-protein complex containing various amino acids and phycobilins. It has various activities, such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. And are potential for applications in food, cosmetics, and biomedicine. Improving their metabolic yield is of great interest. Microalgaes are one of the important sources of PBPs, with high growth rate and have the potential for large-scale production. The key to large-scale PBPs production depends on accumulation and recovery of massive productive alga in the upstream stage and the efficiency of microalgae cells breakup and extract PBPs in the downstream stage. Therefore, we reviewed the status quo in the research and development of PBPs production, summarized the advances in each stage and the feasibility of scaled-up production, and demonstrated challenges and future directions in this field.
PubMed: 37941077
DOI: 10.1186/s13068-023-02387-z