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PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases Mar 2016The aim of this study is to describe the major evolutionary historical events among Leishmania, sandflies, and the associated animal reservoirs in detail, in accordance... (Review)
Review
BACKGROUND
The aim of this study is to describe the major evolutionary historical events among Leishmania, sandflies, and the associated animal reservoirs in detail, in accordance with the geographical evolution of the Earth, which has not been previously discussed on a large scale.
METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS
Leishmania and sandfly classification has always been a controversial matter, and the increasing number of species currently described further complicates this issue. Despite several hypotheses on the origin, evolution, and distribution of Leishmania and sandflies in the Old and New World, no consistent agreement exists regarding dissemination of the actors that play roles in leishmaniasis. For this purpose, we present here three centuries of research on sandflies and Leishmania descriptions, as well as a complete description of Leishmania and sandfly fossils and the emergence date of each Leishmania and sandfly group during different geographical periods, from 550 million years ago until now. We discuss critically the different approaches that were used for Leishmana and sandfly classification and their synonymies, proposing an updated classification for each species of Leishmania and sandfly. We update information on the current distribution and dispersion of different species of Leishmania (53), sandflies (more than 800 at genus or subgenus level), and animal reservoirs in each of the following geographical ecozones: Palearctic, Nearctic, Neotropic, Afrotropical, Oriental, Malagasy, and Australian. We propose an updated list of the potential and proven sandfly vectors for each Leishmania species in the Old and New World. Finally, we address a classical question about digenetic Leishmania evolution: which was the first host, a vertebrate or an invertebrate?
CONCLUSIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE
We propose an updated view of events that have played important roles in the geographical dispersion of sandflies, in relation to both the Leishmania species they transmit and the animal reservoirs of the parasites.
Topics: Animals; Biological Evolution; Disease Reservoirs; Fossils; History, 19th Century; History, 20th Century; History, 21st Century; History, Ancient; Insect Vectors; Leishmania; Leishmaniasis; Psychodidae
PubMed: 26937644
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004349 -
Turkiye Parazitolojii Dergisi Jun 2019In all major parasite groups, new and surprising evidence is emerging every day about the subtlety, complexity and diversity of avoidance mechanisms from host immune... (Review)
Review
In all major parasite groups, new and surprising evidence is emerging every day about the subtlety, complexity and diversity of avoidance mechanisms from host immune system. In the course of millions of years of evolutionary process, mammalian and sand fly hosts have developed defense systems against , but has not only escaped from their hosts’ defense systems through complex counter-strategies, but has also managed to manipulate them to support their own survival and reproduction. In this study, ’s survival strategies used in the sand fly and mammalian hosts and the mechanisms that underlie these strategies will be summarized.
Topics: Animals; Leishmania; Mammals; Phlebotomus; Psychodidae
PubMed: 31204461
DOI: 10.4274/tpd.galenos.2019.6365 -
Parasitology Sep 2018In this review, we explore the state-of-the-art of sand fly relationships with microbiota, viruses and Leishmania, with particular emphasis on the vector immune... (Review)
Review
In this review, we explore the state-of-the-art of sand fly relationships with microbiota, viruses and Leishmania, with particular emphasis on the vector immune responses. Insect-borne diseases are a major public health problem in the world. Phlebotomine sand flies are proven vectors of several aetiological agents including viruses, bacteria and the trypanosomatid Leishmania, which are responsible for diseases such as viral encephalitis, bartonellosis and leishmaniasis, respectively. All metazoans in nature coexist intimately with a community of commensal microorganisms known as microbiota. The microbiota has a fundamental role in the induction, maturation and function of the host immune system, which can modulate host protection from pathogens and infectious diseases. We briefly review viruses of public health importance present in sand flies and revisit studies done on bacterial and fungal gut contents of these vectors. We bring this information into the context of sand fly development and immune responses. We highlight the immunity mechanisms that the insect utilizes to survive the potential threats involved in these interactions and discuss the recently discovered complex interactions among microbiota, sand fly, Leishmania and virus. Additionally, some of the alternative control strategies that could benefit from the current knowledge are considered.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Insect Control; Insect Vectors; Leishmania; Mice; Microbiota; Psychodidae; Public Health
PubMed: 29921334
DOI: 10.1017/S0031182018001014 -
MBio Dec 2022Genetic exchange between different strains in the sand fly vector has been experimentally demonstrated and is supported by population genetic studies. In nature,...
Genetic exchange between different strains in the sand fly vector has been experimentally demonstrated and is supported by population genetic studies. In nature, opportunities for interstrain mating are restricted to flies biting multiply infected hosts or through multiple bites of different hosts. In contrast, self-mating could occur in any infected sand fly. By crossing two recombinant lines derived from the same Leishmania major strain, each expressing a different drug-resistance marker, self-hybridization in L. major was confirmed in a natural sand fly vector, , and in frequencies comparable to interstrain crosses. We provide the first high resolution, whole-genome sequencing analysis of large numbers of selfing progeny, their parents, and parental subclones. Genetic exchange consistent with classical meiosis is supported by the biallelic inheritance of the rare homozygous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that arose by mutation during the generation of the parental clones. In contrast, heterozygous SNPs largely failed to be transmitted in Mendelian ratios for reasons not understood. SNPs that were heterozygous in both parents, however, recombined to produce homozygous alleles in some hybrids. For trisomic chromosomes present in both parents, transmittal to the progeny was only altered by self-hybridization, involving a gain or loss of somy in frequencies predicted by a meiotic process. Whole-genome polyploidization was also observed in the selfing progeny. Thus, self-hybridization in , with its potential to occur in any infected sand fly, may be an important source of karyotype variation, loss of heterozygosity, and functional diversity. are parasitic protozoa that cause a wide spectrum of diseases collectively known as the leishmaniases. Sexual reproduction in has been proposed as an important source of genetic diversity and has been formally demonstrated to occur inside the sand fly vector midgut. Nevertheless, in the wild, opportunities for genetic exchange between different species or strains are restricted by the capacity of different strains to colonize the same sand fly. In this work, we report the first high resolution, whole-genome sequence analysis of intraclonal genetic exchange as a type of self-mating in Our data reveal that self-hybridization can occur with comparable frequency as interstrain mating under experimental lab conditions, leading to important genomic alterations that can potentially take place within every naturally infected sand fly.
Topics: Animals; Leishmania major; Phlebotomus; Psychodidae; Reproduction; Mutation
PubMed: 36394334
DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02858-22 -
Parasites & Vectors Nov 2020Sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) are medically important vectors of human and veterinary disease-causing agents. Among these, the genus Leishmania (Kinetoplastida:... (Review)
Review
BACKGROUND
Sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) are medically important vectors of human and veterinary disease-causing agents. Among these, the genus Leishmania (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae), and phleboviruses are of utmost importance. Despite such significance, updated information about sand fly fauna is missing for Balkan countries where both sand flies and autochtonous leishmaniases are historically present and recently re-emerging. Therefore, a review of historical data on sand fly species composition and distribution in the region was followed by a large-scale entomological survey in eight Balkan countries to provide a recent update on local sand fly fauna.
METHODS
The literature search involved the period 1910-2019. The entomological survey was conducted at 1189 sampling stations in eight countries (Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia and Slovenia), covering 49 settlements and 358 sampling sites between June and October in the years 2014 and 2016, accumulating 130 sampling days. We performed a total of 1189 trapping nights at these stations using two types of traps (light and CO attraction traps) in each location. Sampling was performed with a minimal duration of 6 (Montenegro) and a maximal of 47 days (Serbia) between 0-1000 m.a.s.l. Collected sand flies were morphologically identified.
RESULTS
In total, 8490 sand fly specimens were collected. Morphological identification showed presence of 14 species belonging to genera Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia. Historical data were critically reviewed and updated with our recent findings. Six species were identified in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2 new records), 5 in Montenegro (2 new records), 5 in Croatia (2 new records), 9 in Bulgaria (5 new records), 11 in North Macedonia (1 new record), 10 in Serbia (no new records), 9 in Kosovo (3 new records) and 4 in Slovenia (no new records).
CONCLUSIONS
This study presents results of the first integrated sand fly fauna survey of such scale for the Balkan region, providing first data on sand fly populations for four countries in the study area and presenting new species records for six countries and updated species lists for all surveyed countries. Our findings demonstrate presence of proven and suspected vectors of several Leishmania species.
Topics: Animal Distribution; Animals; Balkan Peninsula; Female; Insect Vectors; Leishmaniasis; Male; Psychodidae
PubMed: 33176888
DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04448-w -
Parasite (Paris, France) 2017Phlebotomine (Diptera, Psychodidae, Phlebotominae) taxonomy has been studied extensively, primarily due to the role of these flies as vectors of various parasites,...
Phlebotomine (Diptera, Psychodidae, Phlebotominae) taxonomy has been studied extensively, primarily due to the role of these flies as vectors of various parasites, including species of Leishmania, Bartonella and arboviruses that cause diseases in humans and other vertebrates. We present some topics discussed at a round-table on phlebotomine taxonomy held at the Ninth International Symposium on Phlebotomine Sandflies (ISOPS IX) in Reims, France, in June 2016. To date, approximately one thousand phlebotomine species have been described worldwide, although in varying languages and mostly without standardization of characters and terminology. In the interest of standardization, we list the characters that should minimally be considered in the description of new phlebotomine taxa as well as annotated illustrations of several characters. For these characters, multiple illustrations are provided to show some of the variations. The preferred terms for all pertinent characters are listed as well as their synonyms in English, Portuguese, and French. Finally, we offer an updated list of abbreviations to be used for generic and subgeneric names.
Topics: Animals; Female; Insect Vectors; Male; Preservation, Biological; Psychodidae
PubMed: 28730992
DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2017027 -
Infectious Diseases of Poverty Feb 2016After the existence of phlebotomine sand flies was first reported in China in 1910, the distribution of different species and their role in the transmission of visceral... (Review)
Review
After the existence of phlebotomine sand flies was first reported in China in 1910, the distribution of different species and their role in the transmission of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) have been extensively studied. Up until 2008, four species have been verified as vectors of VL, namely, Phlebotomus chinensis (Ph. sichuanensis), Ph. longiductus (Ph. chinensis longiductus), Ph. wui (Ph. major wui), and Ph. alexandri. The sand fly species vary greatly depending on the natural environments in the different geographic areas where they are endemic. Ph. chinensis is euryecious and adaptable to different ecologies, and is thus distributed widely in the plain, mountainous, and Loess Plateau regions north of the Yangtze River. Ph. longiductus is mainly distributed in ancient oasis areas south of Mt. Tianshan in the Xinjiang Uygur autonomous region. Ph. wui is the predominant species in deserts with Populus diversifolia and Tamarix vegetation in Xinjiang and the western part of the Inner Mongolia autonomous region. Finally, Ph. alexandri is steroecious and found only in stony desert areas, such as at the foot of the mountains in Xinjiang and the western Hexi Corridor, in Gansu province. This review summarized the relationship between the geographic distribution pattern of the four sand fly species and their geographical landscape in order to foster research on disease distribution and sand fly control planning. Furthermore, some problems that remained to be solved about vectors of VL in China were discussed.
Topics: Animal Distribution; Animals; China; Humans; Insect Vectors; Leishmania; Leishmaniasis, Visceral; Psychodidae
PubMed: 26906187
DOI: 10.1186/s40249-016-0107-z -
Current Opinion in Microbiology Aug 2008Complex interactions occurs between Leishmania parasites and their sand fly vectors. Promastigotes of Leishmania live exclusively within the gut, possess flagella and... (Review)
Review
Complex interactions occurs between Leishmania parasites and their sand fly vectors. Promastigotes of Leishmania live exclusively within the gut, possess flagella and are motile, and kinesins, kinases and G proteins have been described that play a role in regulating flagellar assembly. Movement within the gut is not random: promastigotes can detect gradients of solutes via chemotaxis and osmotaxis. Further they use their flagella to attach to the fly midgut using surface glyconconjugates, a key step in establishment of the infection. Differentiation of mammal-infective stages is characterised by significant biochemical and cellular remodelling. Further, the parasites can manipulate the behaviour of the vector to maximise their transmission, and flies may even deliver altruistic apoptotic forms to aid transmission of infective stages.
Topics: Animals; Cell Adhesion; Disease Vectors; Gastrointestinal Tract; Leishmania; Locomotion; Psychodidae
PubMed: 18625337
DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2008.06.003 -
Communications Biology Apr 2022Blood-sucking arthropods transmit a variety of human pathogens acting as disseminators of the so-called vector-borne diseases. Leishmaniasis is a spectrum of diseases... (Review)
Review
Blood-sucking arthropods transmit a variety of human pathogens acting as disseminators of the so-called vector-borne diseases. Leishmaniasis is a spectrum of diseases caused by different Leishmania species, transmitted quasi worldwide by sand flies. However, whereas many laboratories focus on the disease(s) and etiological agents, considerably less study the respective vectors. In fact, information on sand flies is neither abundant nor easy to find; aspects including basic biology, ecology, and sand-fly-Leishmania interactions are usually reported separately. Here, we compile elemental information on sand flies, in the context of leishmaniasis. We discuss the biology, distribution, and life cycle, the blood-feeding process, and the Leishmania-sand fly interactions that govern parasite transmission. Additionally, we highlight some outstanding questions that need to be answered for the complete understanding of parasite-vector-host interactions in leishmaniasis.
Topics: Animals; Insect Vectors; Leishmania; Leishmaniasis; Parasites; Psychodidae
PubMed: 35379881
DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03240-z -
Parasite (Paris, France) 2016Leishmaniases are parasitic diseases caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania. The parasites, which infect various wild and domestic mammals, including humans, are... (Review)
Review
Leishmaniases are parasitic diseases caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania. The parasites, which infect various wild and domestic mammals, including humans, are transmitted by the bite of phlebotomine sand flies belonging to the Phlebotomus genus in the Old World and to several genera (including Lutzomyia, Psychodopygus and Nyssomyia) in the New World. In this paper, we consider the genus Sergentomyia as divided into seven subgenera, mainly based on spermathecal morphology: Sergentomyia, Sintonius, Parrotomyia, Rondanomyia, Capensomyia, Vattieromyia and Trouilletomyia. We also include the groups Grassomyia and Demeillonius but exclude the genera Spelaeomyia and Parvidens. The possible role of Sergentomyia in the circulation of mammalian leishmaniases in the Old World has been considered as Leishmania DNA and/or parasites have been identified in several species. However, several criteria must be fulfilled to incriminate an arthropod as a biological vector of leishmaniasis, namely: it must be attracted to and willing to feed on humans and any reservoir host, and be present in the same environment; several unambiguously identified wild female flies not containing blood meals have to be found infected (through isolation and/or typing of parasites) with the same strain of Leishmania as occurs in humans or any reservoir host; the presence of infective forms of Leishmania on naturally infected females and/or on colonized sand flies infected experimentally should be observed; and finally, the vector has to be able to transmit parasites as a result of blood-feeding on a susceptible mammal.
Topics: Animals; DNA, Protozoan; Humans; Insect Vectors; Leishmania; Leishmaniasis; Psychodidae
PubMed: 27921993
DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2016062