Review

Authors: Osama Elattar, Ho-Rim Choi, Vickie D Dills...

CONTEXT

Groin pain is a common entity in athletes involved in sports that require acute cutting, pivoting, or kicking such as soccer and ice hockey. Athletic pubalgia is increasingly recognized as a common cause of chronic groin and adductor pain in athletes. It is considered an overuse injury predisposing to disruption of the rectus tendon insertion to the pubis and weakness of the posterior inguinal wall without a clinically detectable hernia. These patients often require surgical therapy after failure of nonoperative measures. A variety of surgical options have been used, and most patients improve and return to high-level competition.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

PubMed databases were searched to identify relevant scientific and review articles from January 1920 to January 2015 using the search terms groin pain, sports hernia, athletic pubalgia, adductor strain, osteitis pubis, stress fractures, femoroacetabular impingement, and labral tears.

STUDY DESIGN

Clinical review.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 4.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Athletic pubalgia is an overuse injury involving a weakness in the rectus abdominis insertion or posterior inguinal wall of the lower abdomen caused by acute or repetitive injury of the structure. A variety of surgical options have been reported with successful outcomes, with high rates of return to the sport in the majority of cases.

Topics: Athletic Injuries; Biomechanical Phenomena; Cumulative Trauma Disorders; Diagnosis, Differential; Groin; Humans; Pain; Pubic Symphysis; Return to Sport

PubMed: 27302153
DOI: 10.1177/1941738116653711

Review

Authors: Mihaela Pavličev, Roberto Romero, Philipp Mitteroecker...

Without cesarean delivery, obstructed labor can result in maternal and fetal injuries or even death given a disproportion in size between the fetus and the maternal birth canal. The precise frequency of obstructed labor is difficult to estimate because of the widespread use of cesarean delivery for indications other than proven cephalopelvic disproportion, but it has been estimated that at least 1 million mothers per year are affected by this disorder worldwide. Why is the fit between the fetus and the maternal pelvis so tight? Why did evolution not lead to a greater safety margin, as in other primates? Here we review current research and suggest new hypotheses on the evolution of human childbirth and pelvic morphology. In 1960, Washburn suggested that this obstetrical dilemma arose because the human pelvis is an evolutionary compromise between two functions, bipedal gait and childbirth. However, recent biomechanical and kinematic studies indicate that pelvic width does not considerably affect the efficiency of bipedal gait and thus is unlikely to have constrained the evolution of a wider birth canal. Instead, bipedalism may have primarily constrained the flexibility of the pubic symphysis during pregnancy, which opens much wider in most mammals with large fetuses than in humans. We argue that the birth canal is mainly constrained by the trade-off between 2 pregnancy-related functions: while a narrow pelvis is disadvantageous for childbirth, it offers better support for the weight exerted by the viscera and the large human fetus during the long gestation period. We discuss the implications of this hypothesis for understanding pelvic floor dysfunction. Furthermore, we propose that selection for a narrow pelvis has also acted in males because of the role of pelvic floor musculature in erectile function. Finally, we review the cliff-edge model of obstetric selection to explain why evolution cannot completely eliminate cephalopelvic disproportion. This model also predicts that the regular application of life-saving cesarean delivery has evolutionarily increased rates of cephalopelvic disproportion already. We address how evolutionary models contribute to understanding and decision making in obstetrics and gynecology as well as in devising health care policies.

Topics: Animals; Biological Evolution; Cephalopelvic Disproportion; Cesarean Section; Female; Gait; Hominidae; Humans; Parturition; Pelvic Bones; Pelvimetry; Pelvis; Pregnancy; Pubic Symphysis; Selection, Genetic

PubMed: 31251927
DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2019.06.043

Review

Authors: Per Hölmich

The doctoral thesis is based on eight papers published in peer-reviewed journals and a review of the literature. The papers are published between 1997 and 2013 in cooperation with Sankt Elisabeth Hospital, Herlev Hospital, Glostrup Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Hvidovre Hospital, Amager Hospital, Copenhagen Trial Unit, and Institute of Preventive Medicine, Copenhagen. Groin injuries in sport are very common and in football they are among the most common and most time-consuming injuries. These injuries are treated very differently around the world. There is no consensus in the literature regarding definitions, examination methods, diagnosis or treatment and in general the level of evidence is very low. There is a need for identification of the painful anatomical structures, how to examine them and how to define clinical entities to develop effective treatment and prevention. The aim of these studies were: - To review the literature to create an overview of the ideas and the knowledge in order to plan future studies in this field. - Develop and test clinical examination techniques of the relevant tendons and muscles in the region. - Since no evidence-based diagnosis exist; to develop a set of clinical entities to identify the different groups of patients. - To test the effect of a dedicated exercise program developed for treatment of long-standing adductor-related groin pain in athletes in a randomised clinical trial comparing it to the treatment modalities used at that time. - To examine the long-term effect of the above mentioned training program for treatment of long-standing adductor-related groin pain. - To develop a training program for prevention of groin injuries in soccer and test it in a randomised clinical trial. - To describe the occurrence and presentation in clinical entities of groin injuries in male football and to examine the characteristics of these injuries. - Evaluate if radiological signs of femuro-acetabular impingement (FAI) or dysplasia affect the clinical outcome of treatment of long-standing adductor-related groin pain, initially and at 8-12 year follow-up.   The main findings of the eight papers were: - No randomised trials existed in this area; there was no consensus in the literature and the majority of the literature was Level 4 and 5. From the existing literature and the author' experience an injury mechanism was suggested and the term ''adductor-related groin injury'' was suggested. - A well-defined clinical examination of the adductor-, iliopsoas, and abdominal muscles and the symphysis joint for pain, strength, and flexibility was reproducible with only limited intra- and inter-observer variation. - By utilising a well-defined classification long-standing groin injuries could be classified with a system of clinical entities.

Topics: Abdominal Muscles; Athletic Injuries; Groin; Humans; Male; Musculoskeletal Pain; Physical Examination; Physical Therapy Modalities; Pubic Symphysis; Soccer

PubMed: 26621401
DOI: No ID Found

Authors: Mohamad Habous, Alaa Tealab, Ben Williamson...

INTRODUCTION

Accurate data regarding the size of the erect penis are of great importance to several disciplines working with male patients, but little high-quality research exists on the subject, particularly in different ethnic groups and for erect penis size.

AIM

The aim of this study was to create a nomogram of erect penile dimensions in a large sample of Middle Eastern men.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study of 778 men (mean age 43.7; range 20-82) attending urological outpatient clinics in Saudi Arabia was conducted. Exclusion criteria were age under 18 years, a presenting complaint of small or short penis, Peyronie's disease or complaint of congenital curvature, clinical hypogonadism, and previous penile surgery or trauma.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Three erect penile dimensions following induction of erection using intracavernosal injection of Quadrimix.

RESULTS

Mean patient body mass index (BMI) was 29.09 (standard deviation [SD] 5.76). The mean suprapubic skin-to-penile tip erect length was 12.53 cm (SD 1.93); the mean erect length from the symphysis pubis to the penile tip was 14.34 cm (SD 1.86); and the mean erect shaft circumference was 11.50 cm (SD 1.74). A nomogram was constructed and statistical analysis performed, demonstrating a weak negative correlation between BMI and erect penile length measured from the suprapubic skin (r = -0.283, P < 0.000) but not from bone to tip, and a weak negative correlation between age and both erect penile length measurements (skin to tip r = -0.177, P < 0.0005; bone to tip r = -0.099, P = 0.006).

CONCLUSION

A nomogram for Middle Eastern men can be used as a standard when advising men with small penis anxiety. The importance of measuring erect size and allowing for infra-pubic fat interference in measurement is emphasized. We envisage that this tool can be used to educate and reassure concerned men about the size of their penises.

Topics: Adult; Body Mass Index; Humans; Male; Middle Aged; Nomograms; Organ Size; Outcome Assessment, Health Care; Penile Erection; Penis; Pubic Bone; Retrospective Studies; Saudi Arabia

PubMed: 25904106
DOI: 10.1111/jsm.12894

Authors: Giuseppe Balconi

There is considerable confusion over the word "pubalgia" with regard to the definition and the etiological causes of this condition. The term pubalgia should be used to indicate disabling pain affecting the pubic region in people who practise sports. Pubalgia affects 10% of those who practise sports and it is particularly prevalent in football players. According to the literature, about 40% of cases of pubalgia are caused by overuse of the symphysis pubis with progressive lesions affecting the rectus abdominal muscles, adductors (rectal-adductor syndrome) and the symphysis itself (osteitis pubis and joint injury). An initial study of the tendons is carried out by ultrasound (US) whereas magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) should be performed to study the bones and joints.Another 40% of cases of pubalgia are caused by "sports hernia" defined as anteroinferior abdominal wall insufficiency. These alterations can only be identified at dynamic US examination.About 20% of cases of pubalgia are caused by diseases of the neighboring structures or joints such as diseases of the hip, iliopsoas, hamstring, sacred iliac or nerves, or by urogenital diseases.

PubMed: 23396870
DOI: 10.1016/j.jus.2011.06.005