-
Cells Mar 2023The most common cause of acquired thyroid dysfunction is autoimmune thyroid disease, which is an organ-specific autoimmune disease with two presentation phenotypes:... (Review)
Review
The most common cause of acquired thyroid dysfunction is autoimmune thyroid disease, which is an organ-specific autoimmune disease with two presentation phenotypes: hyperthyroidism (Graves-Basedow disease) and hypothyroidism (Hashimoto's thyroiditis). Hashimoto's thyroiditis is distinguished by the presence of autoantibodies against thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin. Meanwhile, autoantibodies against the TSH receptor have been found in Graves-Basedow disease. Numerous susceptibility genes, as well as epigenetic and environmental factors, contribute to the pathogenesis of both diseases. This review summarizes the most common genetic, epigenetic, and environmental mechanisms involved in autoimmune thyroid disease.
Topics: Humans; Hashimoto Disease; Graves Disease; Autoimmune Diseases; Thyroid Diseases; Autoantibodies
PubMed: 36980259
DOI: 10.3390/cells12060918 -
Frontiers in Endocrinology 2023Selenium, a non-metallic element, is a micronutrient essential for the biosynthesis of selenoproteins containing selenocysteine. In adults, the thyroid contains the... (Review)
Review
Selenium, a non-metallic element, is a micronutrient essential for the biosynthesis of selenoproteins containing selenocysteine. In adults, the thyroid contains the highest amount of selenium per gram of tissue. Most known selenoproteins, such as glutathione peroxidase, are expressed in the thyroid and are involved in thyroid hormone metabolism, redox state regulation, and maintenance of cellular homeostasis. Some clinical studies have shown that lack of selenium will increase the prevalence of several kinds of thyroid diseases. Selenium treatment in patients with Graves' orbitopathy has been shown to delay disease progression and improve the quality of life. Selenium supplementation in Hashimoto's thyroiditis was associated with the decreased levels of anti-thyroid peroxidase antibody and improved thyroid ultrasound structure. In thyroid cancer, various selenium supplements have shown variable anticancer activity. However, published results remain the conflicting and more clinical evidence is still needed to determine the clinical significance of selenium. This article reviews the strong association between selenium and thyroid disease and provides new ideas for the clinical management of selenium in thyroid disease.
Topics: Humans; Selenium; Quality of Life; Graves Ophthalmopathy; Thyroid Diseases; Selenoproteins
PubMed: 37033262
DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1133000 -
Clinical Medicine (London, England) Mar 2023Pregnancy is accompanied by metabolic changes associated with the thyroid gland. It is therefore important to understand the underlying physiological alterations and the... (Review)
Review
Pregnancy is accompanied by metabolic changes associated with the thyroid gland. It is therefore important to understand the underlying physiological alterations and the management of patients with thyroid disorders in pregnancy. This review focuses on the physiology and the management of hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism and thyroid nodules in the context of pregnancy.
Topics: Pregnancy; Female; Humans; Pregnancy Complications; Thyroid Diseases; Hyperthyroidism; Hypothyroidism
PubMed: 36958843
DOI: 10.7861/clinmed.2023-0018 -
Best Practice & Research. Clinical... Jul 2020Thyroid autoimmunity (TAI) and/or thyroid dysfunction are prevalent in women of reproductive age and have independently been associated with adverse fertility and... (Review)
Review
Thyroid autoimmunity (TAI) and/or thyroid dysfunction are prevalent in women of reproductive age and have independently been associated with adverse fertility and pregnancy outcomes, in the case of spontaneous conception or after assisted reproductive technology (ART). Thus, it seems reasonable to screen for thyrotropin (TSH) and thyroid peroxidase autoantibodies (TPO-abs) in infertile women attempting pregnancy. However, even if the relationship between fertility and thyroid dysfunction and/or TAI persists when properly controlled for other variables, it remains challenging to claim causation. Several studies with different designs (cross sectional, case -control, prospective and retrospective cohort studies) have looked at the association between thyroid autoimmunity, thyroid function and fertility. Heterogeneity among study results are related to small numbers of included patients, poor study design, selection of causes of infertility and different assays used to measure TAI, thyroid hormones and TSH reference values. Indeed, there is no consensus regarding the upper limit of normal for TSH to define thyroid dysfunction and the cut-off levels for intervention. Furthermore, data from interventional trials looking at the impact of levothyroxine treatment on fertility outcome in randomised controlled studies are scarce. Despite the recent update of the guidelines by the American Thyroid Association (ATA) for the Diagnosis and Management of Thyroid Disease during Pregnancy and the postpartum, many questions remain unsettled in ART.
Topics: Adult; Female; Fertility; Humans; Infertility, Female; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Outcome; Prenatal Diagnosis; Reproductive Techniques, Assisted; Thyroid Diseases; Thyroid Function Tests; Treatment Outcome
PubMed: 32037280
DOI: 10.1016/j.beem.2020.101378 -
Polish Archives of Internal Medicine May 2017Anemia is a frequent, although often underestimated, clinical condition accompanying thyroid diseases. Despite the fact that anemia and thyroid dysfunction often occur... (Review)
Review
Anemia is a frequent, although often underestimated, clinical condition accompanying thyroid diseases. Despite the fact that anemia and thyroid dysfunction often occur simultaneously, the causative relationship between the disorders remains ambiguous. Thyroid hormones stimulate the proliferation of erythrocyte precursors both directly and via erythropoietin production enhancement, while iron-deficient anemia negatively influences thyroid hormone status. Thus, different forms of anemia might develop in the course of thyroid dysfunction. Normocytic anemia is the most common, while macrocytic or microcytic anemia occurs less frequently. Anemia in hypothyroidism might result from bone marrow depression, decreased erythropoietin production, comorbid diseases, or concomitant iron, vitamin B12, or folate deficiency. Altered iron metabolism and oxidative stress may contribute to anemia in hyperthyroidism. The risk of anemia in autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) may be related to pernicious anemia and atrophic gastritis, celiac disease, autoimmune hemolytic syndrome, or rheumatic disorders. The coexistence of anemia and thyroid disease constitutes an important clinical problem. Thus, the aim of this review was to provide a comprehensive summary of data on the prevalence, potential mechanisms, and therapy of anemia in the course of thyroid diseases from the clinical and pathogenetic perspectives. Thyroid dysfunction and AITD should be considered in a differential diagnosis of treatment-resistant or refractory anemia, as well as in the case of increased red blood cell distribution width. Of note, the presence of AITD itself, independently from thyroid hormone status, might affect the hemoglobin level.
Topics: Anemia; Female; Humans; Male; Thyroid Diseases; Thyroid Hormones
PubMed: 28400547
DOI: 10.20452/pamw.3985 -
Physiological Research Sep 2020Iodine is essential in the biosynthesis of thyroid hormones that affect metabolic processes in the organism from the prenatal state to the elderly. The immediate... (Review)
Review
Iodine is essential in the biosynthesis of thyroid hormones that affect metabolic processes in the organism from the prenatal state to the elderly. The immediate indicator of iodine intake is the concentration of iodine in urine, but the indicator of iodine intake in the longer term of several months is thyroglobulin (Tg). Tg negatively correlated with increasing intake of iodine in population that do not suffer from thyroid disease, while a more than adequate to excessive iodine intake leads to an increase in Tg. The dependence of Tg on iodine can be described by a U-shaped curve. Thyroglobulin in serum is elevated in thyroid disease mainly in hyperthyroidism (diagnosis E05 of WHO ICD-10 codes) and in goiter (diagnosis E04 of WHO ICD-10 codes). Tg values decrease below 20 microg/l after effective treatment of patients with thyroid disease. Thyroglobulin may thus be an indicator of thyroid stabilization and the success of the thyroid gland treatment.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Iodine; Thyroglobulin; Thyroid Diseases; Thyroid Gland
PubMed: 33094621
DOI: 10.33549/physiolres.934514 -
International Journal of Molecular... Sep 2023The prevalence of hypothyroidism in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is high (22.4%). Thyroid hormones (THs) regulate many metabolic activities in... (Review)
Review
The prevalence of hypothyroidism in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is high (22.4%). Thyroid hormones (THs) regulate many metabolic activities in the liver by promoting the export and oxidation of lipids, as well as de novo lipogenesis. They also control hepatic insulin sensitivity and suppress hepatic gluconeogenesis. Because of its importance in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, the involvement of thyroid dysfunction in the pathogenesis of NAFLD seems plausible. The mechanisms implicated in this relationship include high thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels, low TH levels, and chronic inflammation. The activity of the TH receptor (THR)-β in response to THs is essential in the pathogenesis of hypothyroidism-induced NAFLD. Therefore, an orally active selective liver THR-β agonist, Resmetirom (MGL-3196), was developed, and has been shown to reduce liver fat content, and as a secondary end point, to improve nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. The treatment of NAFLD with THR-β agonists seems quite promising, and other agonists are currently under development and investigation. This review aims to shine a light on the pathophysiological and epidemiological evidence regarding this relationship and the effect that treatment with THs and selective liver THR-β agonists have on hepatic lipid metabolism.
Topics: Humans; Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease; Liver; Thyroid Diseases; Thyroid Hormones; Hypothyroidism; Gluconeogenesis
PubMed: 37834051
DOI: 10.3390/ijms241914605 -
Diabetes & Metabolism Journal Mar 2022Thyroid disorders and diabetes mellitus often coexist and are closely related. Several studies have shown a higher prevalence of thyroid disorders in patients with... (Review)
Review
Thyroid disorders and diabetes mellitus often coexist and are closely related. Several studies have shown a higher prevalence of thyroid disorders in patients with diabetes mellitus and vice versa. Thyroid hormone affects glucose homeostasis by impacting pancreatic β-cell development and glucose metabolism through several organs such as the liver, gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, and the central nervous system. The present review discusses the effect of thyroid hormone on glucose homeostasis. We also review the relationship between thyroid disease and diabetes mellitus: type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes, as well as guidelines for screening thyroid function with each disorder. Finally, we provide an overview of the effects of antidiabetic drugs on thyroid hormone and thyroid disorders.
Topics: Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2; Glucose; Homeostasis; Humans; Thyroid Diseases; Thyroid Hormones
PubMed: 35385635
DOI: 10.4093/dmj.2022.0013 -
Frontiers in Bioscience (Landmark... Jun 2016Hashimoto's thyroiditis is a type of autoimmune thyroid disease with an increasing prevalence in past decades. Its diagnosisis mostly based on ultrasonography.... (Review)
Review
Hashimoto's thyroiditis is a type of autoimmune thyroid disease with an increasing prevalence in past decades. Its diagnosisis mostly based on ultrasonography. Ultrasonography is a useful and essential tool to make this diagnosis based on the characteristics of the disease. In the differential diagnosis of thyroid nodules, ultrasound-guided fine-needle biopsy is an effective method to distinguish Hashimoto's thyroiditis from other thyroid disorders. One exciting and recent advance is that non-invasive ultrasound-based methods have supplemented fine-needle aspiration to diagnose Hashimoto's thyroiditis under more complex conditions. In this review, we discuss the recent advantages of ultrasonography in the diagnosis of Hashimoto's thyroiditis.
Topics: Diagnosis, Differential; Endoscopic Ultrasound-Guided Fine Needle Aspiration; Hashimoto Disease; Humans; Thyroid Diseases; Thyroid Nodule; Ultrasonography
PubMed: 27100487
DOI: 10.2741/4437 -
Frontiers in Endocrinology 2023Thyroid hormone is considered one of the key regulatory hormones for skin homeostasis. Multiple organs are affected by the release of peripheral thyroid hormones (T4 and... (Review)
Review
INTRODUCTION
Thyroid hormone is considered one of the key regulatory hormones for skin homeostasis. Multiple organs are affected by the release of peripheral thyroid hormones (T4 and T3) further regulating various functions at a cellular level. Specifically, skin is considered an important target organ in which the thyroid hormone has a significant impact. Multiple skin diseases are associated with thyroid hormone dysregulation. However, other striking dermatologic manifestations are seen in nails and hair as well. Hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and thyroid cancer can have an array of cutaneous manifestations, and we present the recent updates in this field.
METHODS
A PubMed search was performed for updates in any new skin disease findings and treatments between 2010 and 2022. Research published in the past decade and previously known foundational skin findings associated with thyroid disease were presented in this review.
CONCLUSION
Cutaneous manifestations of thyroid disease is one of the first notable signs of thyroid hormone dysregulation. This article reviews the recent updates on the thyroid and skin interplay, and it further discusses overt visible findings and various available treatment modalities.
Topics: Humans; Thyroid Diseases; Hypothyroidism; Hyperthyroidism; Thyroid Hormones; Skin Diseases
PubMed: 37251685
DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1167890