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Pathogens and Global Health Feb 2023infection in the central nervous system commonly occurs among immunodeficient patients. Its prevalence is high in countries with a high burden of HIV and low coverage... (Review)
Review
infection in the central nervous system commonly occurs among immunodeficient patients. Its prevalence is high in countries with a high burden of HIV and low coverage of antiretroviral drugs. The brain is one of the predilections for infection due to its low inflammatory reaction, and cerebral toxoplasmosis occurs solely due to the reactivation of a latent infection rather than a new infection. Several immune elements have recently been recognized to have an essential role in the immunopathogenesis of cerebral toxoplasmosis. Although real-time isothermal amplification, next-generation sequencing, and enzyme-linked aptamer assays from blood samples have been the recommended diagnostic tools in some in-vivo studies, a combination of clinical symptoms, serology examination, and neuroimaging are still the daily standard for the presumptive diagnosis of cerebral toxoplasmosis and early anti-toxoplasma administration. Clinical trials are needed to find a new therapy that is less likely to affect folate synthesis, have neuroprotective properties, or cure the latent phase of infection. The development of a vaccine is being extensively tested in animals, but its efficacy and safety for humans are still not proven.
Topics: Animals; Humans; Toxoplasmosis, Cerebral; AIDS-Related Opportunistic Infections; Toxoplasma; Antibodies, Protozoan
PubMed: 35694771
DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2022.2083977 -
Parasites & Vectors May 2015Toxoplasmosis, caused by the obligate intracellular protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, is an important zoonosis with medical and veterinary importance worldwide. The disease... (Review)
Review
Toxoplasmosis, caused by the obligate intracellular protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, is an important zoonosis with medical and veterinary importance worldwide. The disease is mainly contracted by ingesting undercooked or raw meat containing viable tissue cysts, or by ingesting food or water contaminated with oocysts. The diagnosis and genetic characterization of T. gondii infection is crucial for the surveillance, prevention and control of toxoplasmosis. Traditional approaches for the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis include etiological, immunological and imaging techniques. Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis has been improved by the emergence of molecular technologies to amplify parasite nucleic acids. Among these, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based molecular techniques have been useful for the genetic characterization of T. gondii. Serotyping methods based on polymorphic polypeptides have the potential to become the choice for typing T. gondii in humans and animals. In this review, we summarize conventional non-DNA-based diagnostic methods, and the DNA-based molecular techniques for the diagnosis and genetic characterization of T. gondii. These techniques have provided foundations for further development of more effective and accurate detection of T. gondii infection. These advances will contribute to an improved understanding of the epidemiology, prevention and control of toxoplasmosis.
Topics: Animals; Diagnostic Tests, Routine; Humans; Toxoplasma; Toxoplasmosis
PubMed: 26017718
DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-0902-6 -
EcoHealth Jun 2019One Health is a collaborative, interdisciplinary effort that seeks optimal health for people, animals, plants, and the environment. Toxoplasmosis, caused by Toxoplasma... (Review)
Review
One Health is a collaborative, interdisciplinary effort that seeks optimal health for people, animals, plants, and the environment. Toxoplasmosis, caused by Toxoplasma gondii, is an intracellular protozoan infection distributed worldwide, with a heteroxenous life cycle that practically affects all homeotherms and in which felines act as definitive reservoirs. Herein, we review the natural history of T. gondii, its transmission and impacts in humans, domestic animals, wildlife both terrestrial and aquatic, and ecosystems. The epidemiology, prevention, and control strategies are reviewed, with the objective of facilitating awareness of this disease and promoting transdisciplinary collaborations, integrative research, and capacity building among universities, government agencies, NGOs, policy makers, practicing physicians, veterinarians, and the general public.
Topics: Animals; Animals, Wild; Ecosystem; Humans; One Health; Toxoplasma; Toxoplasmosis; Toxoplasmosis, Animal
PubMed: 30945159
DOI: 10.1007/s10393-019-01405-7 -
International Journal For Parasitology Feb 2021Toxoplasmosis is caused by Toxoplasma gondii, an apicomplexan parasite that is able to infect any nucleated cell in any warm-blooded animal. Toxoplasma gondii infects... (Review)
Review
Toxoplasmosis is caused by Toxoplasma gondii, an apicomplexan parasite that is able to infect any nucleated cell in any warm-blooded animal. Toxoplasma gondii infects around 2 billion people and, whilst only a small percentage of infected people will suffer serious disease, the prevalence of the parasite makes it one of the most damaging zoonotic diseases in the world. Toxoplasmosis is a disease with multiple manifestations: it can cause a fatal encephalitis in immunosuppressed people; if first contracted during pregnancy, it can cause miscarriage or congenital defects in the neonate; and it can cause serious ocular disease, even in immunocompetent people. The disease has a complex epidemiology, being transmitted by ingestion of oocysts that are shed in the faeces of definitive feline hosts and contaminate water, soil and crops, or by consumption of intracellular cysts in undercooked meat from intermediate hosts. In this review we examine current and future approaches to control toxoplasmosis, which encompass a variety of measures that target different components of the life cycle of T. gondii. These include: education programs about the parasite and avoidance of contact with infectious stages; biosecurity and sanitation to ensure food and water safety; chemo- and immunotherapeutics to control active infections and disease; prophylactic options to prevent acquisition of infection by livestock and cyst formation in meat; and vaccines to prevent shedding of oocysts by definitive feline hosts.
Topics: Animals; Cats; Female; Humans; Oocysts; Pregnancy; Prevalence; Toxoplasma; Toxoplasmosis; Toxoplasmosis, Animal; Zoonoses
PubMed: 33347832
DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2020.11.001 -
International Ophthalmology Jan 2022This review aims to summarize the current knowledge concerning the clinical features, diagnostic work-up and therapeutic approach of ocular toxoplasmosis focusing mainly... (Review)
Review
PURPOSE
This review aims to summarize the current knowledge concerning the clinical features, diagnostic work-up and therapeutic approach of ocular toxoplasmosis focusing mainly on the postnatally acquired form of the disease.
METHODS
A meticulous literature search was performed in the PubMed database. A supplementary search was made in Google Scholar to complete the collected items.
RESULTS
Ocular toxoplasmosis is one of the most frequent infectious etiologies of posterior uveitis. It typically presents with retinochoroiditis. Setting an accurate diagnosis depends to a considerable degree on detecting characteristic clinical characteristics. In addition to the evaluation of clinical features, the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis relies at a large degree on serologic testing. The detection of the parasite DNA in the aqueous or vitreous humor can provide evidence for a definitive diagnosis. The current mainstay for the treatment, if necessary, is the use of oral antibiotic with systemic corticosteroids. Recent evidence suggests other therapeutic approaches, such as intravitreal antibiotics can be used.
CONCLUSION
Recent developments in the diagnostic and therapeutic approach have contributed to preventing or limiting vision loss of patients suffering from ocular toxoplasmosis. Further studies are required to provide a better understanding of epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment with a significant impact on the management of this challenging clinical entity.
Topics: Chorioretinitis; Eye; Humans; Toxoplasma; Toxoplasmosis, Ocular; Uveitis, Posterior
PubMed: 34370174
DOI: 10.1007/s10792-021-01994-9 -
Trends in Parasitology Dec 2020Traditionally, the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii has been thought of as relevant to public health primarily within the context of congenital toxoplasmosis or... (Review)
Review
Traditionally, the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii has been thought of as relevant to public health primarily within the context of congenital toxoplasmosis or postnatally acquired disease in immunocompromised patients. However, latent T.gondii infection has been increasingly associated with a wide variety of neuropsychiatric disorders and, more recently, causal frameworks for these epidemiological associations have been proposed. We present assimilated evidence on the associations between T.gondii and various human neuropsychiatric disorders and outline how these may be explained within a unifying causal framework. We argue that the occult effects of latent T.gondii infection likely outweigh the recognised overt morbidity caused by toxoplasmosis, substantially raising the public health importance of this parasite.
Topics: Humans; Immunocompromised Host; Latent Infection; Mental Disorders; Toxoplasma; Toxoplasmosis
PubMed: 33012669
DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2020.08.005 -
Parasites & Vectors Nov 2020Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that is the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, an infection with high prevalence worldwide. Most of the infected individuals are... (Review)
Review
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that is the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, an infection with high prevalence worldwide. Most of the infected individuals are either asymptomatic or have mild symptoms, but T. gondii can cause severe neurologic damage and even death of the fetus when acquired during pregnancy. It is also a serious condition in immunodeficient patients. The life-cycle of T. gondii is complex, with more than one infective form and several transmission pathways. In two animated videos, we describe the main aspects of this cycle, raising questions about poorly or unknown issues of T. gondii biology. Original plates, based on electron microscope observations, are also available for teachers, students and researchers. The main goal of this review is to provide a source of learning on the fundamental aspects of T. gondii biology to students and teachers contributing for better knowledge and control on this important parasite, and unique cell model. In addition, drawings and videos point to still unclear aspects of T. gondii lytic cycle that may stimulate further studies.
Topics: Animals; Female; Humans; Life Cycle Stages; Pregnancy; Prevalence; Toxoplasma; Toxoplasmosis; Video Recording
PubMed: 33228743
DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04445-z -
Current Biology : CB Jul 2018Putting cat lovers on notice: Toxoplasma gondii is here to control your brain…or is it? Kochanowsky and Koshy shine the spotlight on this notorious pathogen.
Putting cat lovers on notice: Toxoplasma gondii is here to control your brain…or is it? Kochanowsky and Koshy shine the spotlight on this notorious pathogen.
Topics: Animals; Host-Parasite Interactions; Humans; Life History Traits; Toxoplasma; Toxoplasmosis; Toxoplasmosis, Animal
PubMed: 30040931
DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.05.035 -
Frontiers in Immunology 2019is a widespread parasitic pathogen that infects over one third of the global human population. The parasite invades and chronically persists in the central nervous... (Review)
Review
is a widespread parasitic pathogen that infects over one third of the global human population. The parasite invades and chronically persists in the central nervous system (CNS) of the infected host. Parasite spread and persistence is intimately linked to an ensuing immune response, which does not only limit parasite-induced damage but also may facilitate dissemination and induce parasite-associated immunopathology. Here, we discuss various aspects of toxoplasmosis where knowledge is scarce or controversial and, the recent advances in the understanding of the delicate interplay of with the immune system in experimental and clinical settings. This includes mechanisms for parasite passage from the circulation into the brain parenchyma across the blood-brain barrier during primary acute infection. Later, as chronic latent infection sets in with control of the parasite in the brain parenchyma, the roles of the inflammatory response and of immune cell responses in this phase of the disease are discussed. Additionally, the function of brain resident cell populations is delineated, i.e., how neurons, astrocytes and microglia serve both as target cells for the parasite but also actively contribute to the immune response. As the infection can reactivate in the CNS of immune-compromised individuals, we bring up the immunopathogenesis of reactivated toxoplasmosis, including the special case of congenital CNS manifestations. The relevance, advantages and limitations of rodent infection models for the understanding of human cerebral toxoplasmosis are discussed. Finally, this review pinpoints questions that may represent challenges to experimental and clinical science with respect to improved diagnostics, pharmacological treatments and immunotherapies.
Topics: Animals; Blood-Brain Barrier; Brain; Chronic Disease; Host-Parasite Interactions; Humans; Toxoplasmosis, Cerebral
PubMed: 30873157
DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00242 -
Turkiye Parazitolojii Dergisi Jun 2020Toxoplasmosis is a common infection worldwide caused by , an intracellular parasite. The prevalence of Toxoplasmosis ranges from 17.5% to 69.5% in Turkey. Toxoplasmosis... (Review)
Review
Toxoplasmosis is a common infection worldwide caused by , an intracellular parasite. The prevalence of Toxoplasmosis ranges from 17.5% to 69.5% in Turkey. Toxoplasmosis is mostly asymptomatic. It may cause fetal mortality in case of vertical passage. The most common clinical findings in congenital toxoplasmosis are chorioretinitis, hydrocephalus and cerebral calcification. Another group of susceptible patients for are immunesuppressive patients. Reactivation of a latent infection in the case of immunodeficiency can lead to fatal toxoplasmic encephalitis. Serological diagnostic methods based on the detection of specific antibodies for are the most commonly used diagnostic methods. However, it may be difficult to interpret the results in pregnant women, neonates, and the patients receiving treatment. It is stated that using more than one method together to improve the reliability of the diagnosis is a more accurate approach. In the prenatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis, in patients with immunodeficiency, in ocular toxoplasmosis, the polymerase chain reaction is seen as having a higher sensitivity. The aim of this review is to present the general features, diagnostic methods and current approaches in toxoplasma infection, an important public health problem.
Topics: Adult; Antibodies, Protozoan; Female; Humans; Immunocompromised Host; Infant, Newborn; Infectious Disease Transmission, Vertical; Polymerase Chain Reaction; Pregnancy; Pregnancy Complications, Parasitic; Prenatal Diagnosis; Prevalence; Reproducibility of Results; Toxoplasma; Toxoplasmosis; Toxoplasmosis, Congenital; Turkey
PubMed: 32482042
DOI: 10.4274/tpd.galenos.2020.6634