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Toxins Jun 2022Food safety problems are a major hindrance to achieving food security, trade, and healthy living in Africa. Fungi and their secondary metabolites, known as mycotoxins,... (Review)
Review
Food safety problems are a major hindrance to achieving food security, trade, and healthy living in Africa. Fungi and their secondary metabolites, known as mycotoxins, represent an important concern in this regard. Attempts such as agricultural, storage, and processing practices, and creation of awareness to tackle the menace of fungi and mycotoxins have yielded measurable outcomes especially in developed countries, where there are comprehensive mycotoxin legislations and enforcement schemes. Conversely, most African countries do not have mycotoxin regulatory limits and even when available, are only applied for international trade. Factors such as food insecurity, public ignorance, climate change, poor infrastructure, poor research funding, incorrect prioritization of resources, and nonchalant attitudes that exist among governmental organisations and other stakeholders further complicate the situation. In the present review, we discuss the status of mycotoxin regulation in Africa, with emphasis on the impact of weak mycotoxin legislations and enforcement on African trade, agriculture, and health. Furthermore, we discuss the factors limiting the establishment and control of mycotoxins in the region.
Topics: Africa; Commerce; Food Contamination; Fungi; Internationality; Mycotoxins
PubMed: 35878180
DOI: 10.3390/toxins14070442 -
Toxins Jan 2019Capsicum products are widely commercialised and consumed worldwide. These substrates present unusual nutritional characteristics for microbial growth. Despite this, the... (Review)
Review
Capsicum products are widely commercialised and consumed worldwide. These substrates present unusual nutritional characteristics for microbial growth. Despite this, the presence of spoilage fungi and the co-occurrence of mycotoxins in the pepper production chain have been commonly detected. The main aim of this work was to review the critical control points, with a focus on mycotoxin contamination, during the production, storage and distribution of Capsicum products from a safety perspective; outlining the important role of ecophysiological factors in stimulating or inhibiting mycotoxin biosynthesis in these food commodities. Moreover, the human health risks caused by the ingestion of peppers contaminated with mycotoxins were also reviewed. Overall, Capsicum and its derivative-products are highly susceptible to contamination by mycotoxins. Pepper crop production and further transportation, processing and storage are crucial for production of safe food.
Topics: Capsicum; Food Contamination; Fungi; Humans; Mycotoxins
PubMed: 30626134
DOI: 10.3390/toxins11010027 -
Toxins Apr 2010Mycotoxins are toxic compounds, produced by the secondary metabolism of toxigenic moulds in the Aspergillus, Alternaria, Claviceps, Fusarium, Penicillium and... (Review)
Review
Mycotoxins are toxic compounds, produced by the secondary metabolism of toxigenic moulds in the Aspergillus, Alternaria, Claviceps, Fusarium, Penicillium and Stachybotrys genera occurring in food and feed commodities both pre- and post-harvest. Adverse human health effects from the consumption of mycotoxins have occurred for many centuries. When ingested, mycotoxins may cause a mycotoxicosis which can result in an acute or chronic disease episode. Chronic conditions have a much greater impact, numerically, on human health in general, and induce diverse and powerful toxic effects in test systems: some are carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, estrogenic, hemorrhagic, immunotoxic, nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, dermotoxic and neurotoxic. Although mycotoxin contamination of agricultural products still occurs in the developed world, the application of modern agricultural practices and the presence of a legislatively regulated food processing and marketing system have greatly reduced mycotoxin exposure in these populations. However, in developing countries, where climatic and crop storage conditions are frequently conducive to fungal growth and mycotoxin production, much of the population relies on subsistence farming or on unregulated local markets. Therefore both producers and governmental control authorities are directing their efforts toward the implementation of a correct and reliable evaluation of the real status of contamination of a lot of food commodity and, consequently, of the impact of mycotoxins on human and animal health.
Topics: Animal Feed; Animals; Food Contamination; Food Safety; Humans; Mycotoxins; Risk
PubMed: 22069600
DOI: 10.3390/toxins2040572 -
Toxins Jun 2023Although over the last 10 years several studies have focused on the emerging mycotoxins known as enniatins (ENNs), there is still a lack of knowledge regarding their... (Review)
Review
Although over the last 10 years several studies have focused on the emerging mycotoxins known as enniatins (ENNs), there is still a lack of knowledge regarding their toxicological effects and the development of a correct risk assessment. This is especially true for enniatin B1 (ENN B1), considered the younger sister of the widely studied enniatin B (ENN B). ENN B1 has been found in several food commodities and, as with other mycotoxins, presents antibacterial and antifungal properties. On the other hand, ENN B1 has shown cytotoxic activity, impairment of the cell cycle, the induction of oxidative stress, and changes in mitochondrial membrane permeabilization, as well as negative genotoxic and estrogenic effects. Overall, considering the paucity of information available regarding ENN B1, further studies are necessary to perform a risk assessment. This review summarizes information on the biological characteristics and toxicological effects of ENN B1 as well as the future challenges that this mycotoxin could present.
Topics: Mycotoxins; Depsipeptides; Oxidative Stress; Cell Cycle
PubMed: 37368684
DOI: 10.3390/toxins15060383 -
Toxins Dec 2020Most of the fungi from the genus are pathogenic to cereals, vegetables, and fruits and the products of their secondary metabolism mycotoxins may accumulate in foods and... (Review)
Review
Most of the fungi from the genus are pathogenic to cereals, vegetables, and fruits and the products of their secondary metabolism mycotoxins may accumulate in foods and feeds. Non-ribosomal cyclodepsipeptides are one of the main mycotoxin groups and include beauvericins (BEAs), enniatins (ENNs), and beauvenniatins (BEAEs). When ingested, even small amounts of these metabolites significantly affect human and animal health. On the other hand, in view of their antimicrobial activities and cytotoxicity, they may be used as components in drug discovery and processing and are considered as suitable candidates for anti-cancer drugs. Therefore, it is crucial to expand the existing knowledge about cyclodepsipeptides and to search for new analogues of these compounds. The present manuscript aimed to highlight the extensive variability of cyclodepsipeptides by describing chemistry, biosynthesis, and occurrence of BEAs, ENNs, and BEAEs in foods and feeds. Moreover, the co-occurrence of species was compared to the amounts of toxins in crops, vegetables, and fruits from different regions of the world.
Topics: Animal Feed; Depsipeptides; Food Contamination; Fusarium; Mycotoxins
PubMed: 33287253
DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120765 -
Toxins Mar 2020Contamination of foods and agricultural commodities by various types of toxigenic fungi is a concerning issue for human and animal health [...].
Contamination of foods and agricultural commodities by various types of toxigenic fungi is a concerning issue for human and animal health [...].
Topics: Animals; Crops, Agricultural; Enzymes; Food Microbiology; Fungi; Fungicides, Industrial; Humans; Inactivation, Metabolic; Mycotoxins; Pest Control, Biological; Phytochemicals
PubMed: 32235356
DOI: 10.3390/toxins12040216 -
Frontiers in Cellular and Infection... 2018The secondary metabolites produced by fungi known as mycotoxins, are capable of causing mycotoxicosis (diseases and death) in human and animals. Contamination of... (Review)
Review
The secondary metabolites produced by fungi known as mycotoxins, are capable of causing mycotoxicosis (diseases and death) in human and animals. Contamination of feedstuffs as well as food commodities by fungi occurs frequently in a natural manner and is accompanied by the presence of mycotoxins. The occurrence of mycotoxins' contamination is further stimulated by the on-going global warming as reflected in some findings. This review comprehensively discussed the role of mycotoxins (trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins, ochratoxins, and aflatoxins) toward gut health and gut microbiota. Certainly, mycotoxins cause perturbation in the gut, particularly in the intestinal epithelial. Recent insights have generated an entirely new perspective where there is a bi-directional relationship exists between mycotoxins and gut microbiota, thus suggesting that our gut microbiota might be involved in the development of mycotoxicosis. The bacteria-xenobiotic interplay for the host is highlighted in this review article. It is now well established that a healthy gut microbiota is largely responsible for the overall health of the host. Findings revealed that the gut microbiota is capable of eliminating mycotoxin from the host naturally, provided that the host is healthy with a balance gut microbiota. Moreover, mycotoxins have been demonstrated for modulation of gut microbiota composition, and such alteration in gut microbiota can be observed up to species level in some of the studies. Most, if not all, of the reported effects of mycotoxins, are negative in terms of intestinal health, where beneficial bacteria are eliminated accompanied by an increase of the gut pathogen. The interactions between gut microbiota and mycotoxins have a significant role in the development of mycotoxicosis, particularly hepatocellular carcinoma. Such knowledge potentially drives the development of novel and innovative strategies for the prevention and therapy of mycotoxin contamination and mycotoxicosis.
Topics: Aflatoxins; Animals; Carcinoma, Hepatocellular; Climate Change; Fumonisins; Fungi; Gastrointestinal Microbiome; Gastrointestinal Tract; Humans; Liver Neoplasms; Mycotoxicosis; Mycotoxins; Ochratoxins; Trichothecenes; Zearalenone
PubMed: 29535978
DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00060 -
Essays in Biochemistry Sep 2023Toxigenic fungi, including Aspergillus and Fusarium species, contaminate our major cereal crops with an array of harmful mycotoxins, which threaten the health of humans... (Review)
Review
Toxigenic fungi, including Aspergillus and Fusarium species, contaminate our major cereal crops with an array of harmful mycotoxins, which threaten the health of humans and farmed animals. Despite our best efforts to prevent crop diseases, or postharvest spoilage, our cereals are consistently contaminated with aflatoxins and deoxynivalenol, and while established monitoring systems effectively prevent acute exposure, Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins still threaten our food security. This is through the understudied impacts of: (i) our chronic exposure to these mycotoxins, (ii) the underestimated dietary intake of masked mycotoxins, and (iii) the synergistic threat of cocontaminations by multiple mycotoxins. Mycotoxins also have profound economic consequences for cereal and farmed-animal producers, plus their associated food and feed industries, which results in higher food prices for consumers. Climate change and altering agronomic practices are predicted to exacerbate the extent and intensity of mycotoxin contaminations of cereals. Collectively, this review of the diverse threats from Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins highlights the need for renewed and concerted efforts to understand, and mitigate, the increased risks they pose to our food and feed cereals.
Topics: Humans; Animals; Mycotoxins; Edible Grain; Food Contamination; Fungi; Aspergillus; Fusarium
PubMed: 37313591
DOI: 10.1042/EBC20220221 -
Toxins Aug 2017Mycotoxins are fungal secondary metabolites with bioaccumulation levels leading to their carry-over into animal fluids, organs, and tissues. As a consequence, mycotoxin... (Review)
Review
Mycotoxins are fungal secondary metabolites with bioaccumulation levels leading to their carry-over into animal fluids, organs, and tissues. As a consequence, mycotoxin determination in biological samples from humans and animals has been reported worldwide. Since most mycotoxins show toxic effects at low concentrations and considering the extremely low levels present in biological samples, the application of reliable detection methods is required. This review summarizes the information regarding the studies involving mycotoxin determination in biological samples over the last 10 years. Relevant data on extraction methodology, detection techniques, sample size, limits of detection, and quantitation are presented herein. Briefly, liquid-liquid extraction followed by LC-MS/MS determination was the most common technique. The most analyzed mycotoxin was ochratoxin A, followed by zearalenone and deoxynivalenol-including their metabolites, enniatins, fumonisins, aflatoxins, T-2 and HT-2 toxins. Moreover, the studies were classified by their purpose, mainly focused on the development of analytical methodologies, mycotoxin biomonitoring, and exposure assessment. The study of tissue distribution, bioaccumulation, carry-over, persistence and transference of mycotoxins, as well as, toxicokinetics and ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion) were other proposed goals for biological sample analysis. Finally, an overview of risk assessment was discussed.
Topics: Aflatoxins; Animals; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid; Chromatography, Liquid; Fumonisins; Humans; Mycotoxins; Ochratoxins; Spectrometry, Mass, Electrospray Ionization; T-2 Toxin; Tandem Mass Spectrometry; Trichothecenes; Zearalenone
PubMed: 28820481
DOI: 10.3390/toxins9080251 -
Journal of Advanced Research May 2022is a most destructive fungal pathogen that causes Fusarium head blight (FHB) disease in cereal crops, resulting in severe yield loss and mycotoxin contamination in food...
INTRODUCTION
is a most destructive fungal pathogen that causes Fusarium head blight (FHB) disease in cereal crops, resulting in severe yield loss and mycotoxin contamination in food and feed. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are extensively applied in multiple fields due to their strong antimicrobial activity and are considered alternatives to fungicides. However, the antifungal mechanisms and the effects of AgNPs on mycotoxin production have not been well characterized.
OBJECTIVES
This study aimed to investigate the antifungal activity and mechanisms of AgNPs against both fungicide-resistant and fungicide-sensitive strains, determine their effects on mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) production, and evaluate the potential of AgNPs for FHB management in the field.
METHODS
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and fluorescence microscopy were used to examine the fungal morphological changes caused by AgNPs. In addition, RNA-Seq, qRT-PCR, and western blotting were conducted to detect gene transcription and DON levels.
RESULTS
AgNPs with a diameter of 2 nm exhibited effective antifungal activity against both fungicide-sensitive and fungicide-resistant strains of . Further studies showed that AgNP application could impair the development, cell structure, cellular energy utilization, and metabolism pathways of this fungus. RNA-Seq analysis and sensitivity determination revealed that AgNP treatment significantly induced the expression of azole-related ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters without compromising the control efficacy of azoles in . AgNP treatment stimulated the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), subsequently induced transcription of DON biosynthesis genes, toxisome formation, and mycotoxin production.
CONCLUSION
This study revealed the underlying mechanisms of AgNPs against , determined their effects on DON production, and evaluated the potential of AgNPs for controlling fungicide-resistant strains. Together, our findings suggest that combinations of AgNPs with DON-reducing fungicides could be used for the management of FHB in the future.
Topics: Antifungal Agents; Azoles; Fungicides, Industrial; Fusarium; Metal Nanoparticles; Mycotoxins; Silver; Trichothecenes
PubMed: 35572400
DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2021.09.006