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Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) May 2019Black ginseng is a type of processed ginseng that is prepared from white or red ginseng by steaming and drying several times. This process causes extensive changes in... (Comparative Study)
Comparative Study Review
Black ginseng is a type of processed ginseng that is prepared from white or red ginseng by steaming and drying several times. This process causes extensive changes in types and amounts of secondary metabolites. The chief secondary metabolites in ginseng are ginsenosides (dammarane-type triterpene saponins), which transform into less polar ginsenosides in black ginseng by steaming. In addition, apparent changes happen to other secondary metabolites such as the increase in the contents of phenolic compounds, reducing sugars and acidic polysaccharides in addition to the decrease in concentrations of free amino acids and total polysaccharides. Furthermore, the presence of some Maillard reaction products like maltol was also engaged. These obvious chemical changes were associated with a noticeable superiority for black ginseng over white and red ginseng in most of the comparative biological studies. This review article is an attempt to illustrate different methods of preparation of black ginseng, major chemical changes of saponins and other constituents after steaming as well as the reported biological activities of black ginseng, its major saponins and other metabolites.
Topics: Drug Development; Molecular Structure; Panax; Saponins; Secondary Metabolism
PubMed: 31091790
DOI: 10.3390/molecules24101856 -
BMC Evolutionary Biology Apr 2018The economic value of ginseng in the global medicinal plant trade is estimated to be in excess of US$2.1 billion. At the same time, the evolutionary placement of ginseng...
BACKGROUND
The economic value of ginseng in the global medicinal plant trade is estimated to be in excess of US$2.1 billion. At the same time, the evolutionary placement of ginseng (Panax ginseng) and the complex evolutionary history of the genus is poorly understood despite several molecular phylogenetic studies. In this study, we use a full plastome phylogenomic framework to resolve relationships in Panax and to identify molecular markers for species discrimination.
RESULTS
We used high-throughput sequencing of MBD2-Fc fractionated Panax DNA to supplement publicly available plastid genomes to create a phylogeny based on fully assembled and annotated plastid genomes from 60 accessions of 8 species. The plastome phylogeny based on a 163 kbp matrix resolves the sister relationship of Panax ginseng with P. quinquefolius. The closely related species P. vietnamensis is supported as sister of P. japonicus. The plastome matrix also shows that the markers trnC-rps16, trnS-trnG, and trnE-trnM could be used for unambiguous molecular identification of all the represented species in the genus.
CONCLUSIONS
MBD2 depletion reduces the cost of plastome sequencing, which makes it a cost-effective alternative to Sanger sequencing based DNA barcoding for molecular identification. The plastome phylogeny provides a robust framework that can be used to study the evolution of morphological characters and biosynthesis pathways of ginsengosides for phylogenetic bioprospecting. Molecular identification of ginseng species is essential for authenticating ginseng in international trade and it provides an incentive for manufacturers to create authentic products with verified ingredients.
Topics: Base Sequence; Bayes Theorem; DNA Barcoding, Taxonomic; DNA Methylation; Genome, Mitochondrial; Genome, Plastid; Genomics; High-Throughput Nucleotide Sequencing; Microbiota; Panax; Phylogeny; Species Specificity
PubMed: 29614961
DOI: 10.1186/s12862-018-1160-y -
Biomolecules Apr 2020Both white ginseng (WG, dried root of sp.) and red ginseng (RG, steamed and dried root of sp.) are reported to exhibit a variety of pharmacological effects such as... (Review)
Review
Both white ginseng (WG, dried root of sp.) and red ginseng (RG, steamed and dried root of sp.) are reported to exhibit a variety of pharmacological effects such as anticancer, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective activities. These ginsengs contain hydrophilic sugar-conjugated ginsenosides and polysaccharides as the bioactive constituents. When taken orally, their hydrophilic constituents are metabolized into hydrophobic ginsenosides compound K, Rh1, and Rh2 that are absorbable into the blood. These metabolites exhibit the pharmacological effects more strongly than hydrophilic parental constituents. To enforce these metabolites, fermented WG and RG are developed. Moreover, natural products including ginseng are frequently used for the treatment of allergic disorders. Therefore, this review introduces the current knowledge related to the effectiveness of ginseng on allergic disorders including asthma, allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, and pruritus. We discuss how ginseng, its constituents, and its metabolites regulate allergy-related immune responses. We also describe how ginseng controls allergic disorders.
Topics: Animals; Anti-Allergic Agents; Fermentation; Gastrointestinal Microbiome; Ginsenosides; Humans; Hypersensitivity; Panax
PubMed: 32326081
DOI: 10.3390/biom10040634 -
Integrative Cancer Therapies 2022Ginsenosides, as the most important constituents of ginseng, have been extensively investigated in cancer chemoprevention and therapeutics. Among the ginsenosides,... (Review)
Review
Ginsenosides, as the most important constituents of ginseng, have been extensively investigated in cancer chemoprevention and therapeutics. Among the ginsenosides, Compound K (CK), a rare protopanaxadiol type of ginsenoside, has been most broadly used for cancer treatment due to its high anticancer bioactivity. However, the functional mechanism of CK in cancer is not well known. This review describes the structure, transformation and pharmacological activity of CK and discusses the functional mechanisms of CK and its metabolites, which regulate signaling pathways related to tumor growth and metastasis. CK inhibits tumor growth by inducing tumor apoptosis and tumor cell differentiation, regulates the tumor microenvironment by suppressing tumor angiogenesis-related proteins, and downregulates the roles of immunosuppressive cells, such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). There is currently much research on the potential development of CK as a new strategy when administered alone or in combination with other compounds.
Topics: Apoptosis; Ginsenosides; Humans; Neoplasms; Neovascularization, Pathologic; Panax; Tumor Microenvironment
PubMed: 35615883
DOI: 10.1177/15347354221101203 -
International Journal of Molecular... Mar 2023Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathways progress inflammation and immune cell differentiation in the host immune response; however, the uncontrollable... (Review)
Review
Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathways progress inflammation and immune cell differentiation in the host immune response; however, the uncontrollable stimulation of NF-κB signaling is responsible for several inflammatory illnesses regardless of whether the conditions are acute or chronic. Innate immune cells, such as macrophages, microglia, and Kupffer cells, secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, via the activation of NF-κB subunits, which may lead to the damage of normal cells, including neurons, cardiomyocytes, hepatocytes, and alveolar cells. This results in the occurrence of neurodegenerative disorders, cardiac infarction, or liver injury, which may eventually lead to systemic inflammation or cancer. Recently, ginsenosides from , a historical herbal plant used in East Asia, have been used as possible options for curing inflammatory diseases. All of the ginsenosides tested target different steps of the NF-κB signaling pathway, ameliorating the symptoms of severe illnesses. Moreover, ginsenosides inhibit the NF-κB-mediated activation of cancer metastasis and immune resistance, significantly attenuating the expression of MMPs, Snail, Slug, TWIST1, and PD-L1. This review introduces current studies on the therapeutic efficacy of ginsenosides in alleviating NF-κB responses and emphasizes the critical role of ginsenosides in severe inflammatory diseases as well as cancers.
Topics: NF-kappa B; Ginsenosides; Panax; Signal Transduction; Anti-Inflammatory Agents; Inflammation; Antineoplastic Agents
PubMed: 37047092
DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076119 -
Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy =... Dec 2022Ginsenoside Rh2 (Rh2), the major bio-active ginsenoside that originated from the root of Panax ginseng, has become a "hot topic" for playing multifunctional roles in... (Review)
Review
Ginsenoside Rh2 (Rh2), the major bio-active ginsenoside that originated from the root of Panax ginseng, has become a "hot topic" for playing multifunctional roles in both tumor treatment and tumor microenvironment (TME) immunomodulation. Up to now, emerging experimental research about Rh2 in tumor therapy and immuno-regulation has been published, however, the specific reviews focused on its role in the TME were limited. Hence, in this article, we briefly summarized existing evidence supporting the anticancer effects and potential mechanisms of Rh2 according to the tumor type, including anti-proliferation, anti-invasion, and metastasis, induction of cell cycle arrest, anti-angiogenesis, promotion of reactive oxygen species and differentiation. Meanwhile, we shed light on the role of Rh2 in TME, with an emphasis on regulating tumor immunogenicity, immune cells, cytokines, and physicochemical properties of TME. Finally, the current research limitation and prospects of Rh2 were discussed.
Topics: Ginsenosides; Tumor Microenvironment; Panax; Neoplasms; Immunomodulation
PubMed: 36288668
DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113912 -
Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) Jul 2019Ginseng is a group of cosmopolitan plants with more than a dozen species belonging to the genus in the family that has a long history of use in traditional Chinese... (Review)
Review
Ginseng is a group of cosmopolitan plants with more than a dozen species belonging to the genus in the family that has a long history of use in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Among the bioactive constituents extracted from ginseng, ginseng saponins are a group of natural steroid glycosides and triterpene saponins found exclusively throughout the plant. Studies have shown that these ginseng saponins play a significant role in exerting multiple therapeutic effects. This review covers their chemical structure and classification, as well as their pharmacological activities, including their regulatory effects on immunomodulation, their anticancer effects, and their functions in the central nervous and cardiovascular systems. The general benefits of ginseng saponins for boosting physical vitality and improving quality of life are also discussed. The review concludes with fruitful directions for future research in the use of ginseng saponins as effective therapeutic agents.
Topics: Animals; Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic; Carbohydrates; Central Nervous System; Humans; Immunologic Factors; Molecular Structure; Panax; Plant Extracts; Saponins; Structure-Activity Relationship
PubMed: 31277214
DOI: 10.3390/molecules24132443 -
Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) Feb 2023Ginsenosides are major bioactive compounds present in the species. Ginsenosides exhibit various pharmaceutical properties, including anticancer, anti-inflammatory,... (Review)
Review
Ginsenosides are major bioactive compounds present in the species. Ginsenosides exhibit various pharmaceutical properties, including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimetastatic, hypertension, and neurodegenerative disorder activities. Although several commercial products have been presented on the market, most of the current chemical processes have an unfriendly environment and a high cost of downstream processing. Compared to plant extraction, microbial production exhibits high efficiency, high selectivity, and saves time for the manufacturing of industrial products. To reach the full potential of the pharmaceutical resource of ginsenoside, a suitable microorganism has been developed as a novel approach. In this review, cell biological mechanisms in anticancer activities and the present state of research on the production of ginsenosides are summarized. Microbial hosts, including native endophytes and engineered microbes, have been used as novel and promising approaches. Furthermore, the present challenges and perspectives of using microbial hosts to produce ginsenosides have been discussed.
Topics: Ginsenosides; Panax; Pharmaceutical Preparations
PubMed: 36771109
DOI: 10.3390/molecules28031437 -
Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) Aug 2021spp. ( family) are widely used medicinal plants and they mainly include C.A. Meyer L. (American ginseng) and (notoginseng). Polysaccharides are the main active... (Comparative Study)
Comparative Study Review
spp. ( family) are widely used medicinal plants and they mainly include C.A. Meyer L. (American ginseng) and (notoginseng). Polysaccharides are the main active ingredients in these plants and have demonstrated diverse pharmacological functions, but comparisons of isolation methods, structural features, and bioactivities of these polysaccharides have not yet been reported. This review summarizes recent advances associated with 112 polysaccharides from ginseng, 25 polysaccharides from American ginseng, and 36 polysaccharides from notoginseng and it compares the differences in extraction, purification, structural features, and bioactivities. Most studies focus on ginseng polysaccharides and comparisons are typically made with the polysaccharides from American ginseng and notoginseng. For the extraction, purification, and structural analysis, the processes are similar for the polysaccharides from the three Panax species. Previous studies determined that 55 polysaccharides from ginseng, 18 polysaccharides from American ginseng, and 9 polysaccharides from notoginseng exhibited anti-tumor activity, immunoregulatory effects, anti-oxidant activity, and other pharmacological functions, which are mediated by multiple signaling pathways, including mitogen-activated protein kinase, nuclear factor kappa B, or redox balance pathways. This review can provide new insights into the similarities and differences among the polysaccharides from the three Panax species, which can facilitate and guide further studies to explore the medicinal properties of the family used in traditional Chinese medicine.
Topics: Animals; Chemical Fractionation; Humans; Panax; Polysaccharides
PubMed: 34443587
DOI: 10.3390/molecules26164997 -
Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) Jul 2021Respiratory tract infections are underestimated, as they are mild and generally not incapacitating. In clinical medicine, however, these infections are considered a... (Review)
Review
Respiratory tract infections are underestimated, as they are mild and generally not incapacitating. In clinical medicine, however, these infections are considered a prevalent problem. By 2030, the third most comprehensive reason for death worldwide will be chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), according to the World Health Organization. The current arsenal of anti-inflammatory drugs shows little or no benefits against COPD. For thousands of years, herbal drugs have been used to cure numerous illnesses; they exhibit promising results and enhance physical performance. Ginseng is one such herbal medicine, known to alleviate pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines (IL-2, IL-4, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8) formed by macrophages and epithelial cells. Furthermore, the mechanisms of action of ginsenoside are still not fully understood. Various clinical trials of ginseng have exhibited a reduction of repeated colds and the flu. In this review, ginseng's structural features, the pathogenicity of microbial infections, and the immunomodulatory, antiviral, and anti-bacterial effects of ginseng were discussed. The focus was on the latest animal studies and human clinical trials that corroborate ginseng's role as a therapy for treating respiratory tract infections. The article concluded with future directions and significant challenges. This review would be a valuable addition to the knowledge base for researchers in understanding the promising role of ginseng in treating respiratory tract infections. Further analysis needs to be re-focused on clinical trials to study ginseng's efficacy and safety in treating pathogenic infections and in determining ginseng-drug interactions.
Topics: Animals; Complementary Therapies; Ginsenosides; Humans; Panax; Phytotherapy; Respiratory Tract Infections
PubMed: 34279434
DOI: 10.3390/molecules26134095